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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004109439

Mineral Resources

OF

ARMENIA
AND ANATOLIA

By
HAGOP A. KARAJIAN

METALLURGIST

FIRST EDITION

ARMEN TECHNICAL BOOK CO.

New York

1920

Copyright, 1920.

By

HAGOP A. KARA J I AN.

ARMENIA PRESS

Printers and Publishers

217 East 26th Street

New York City

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To

the memory of

my mother.

Deported and died in Irbid

(Arabian Desert.)

PREFACE

A glance at the early history of this tramping-ground of
our Aryan forefathers gives the impression that the region was
both better known and better appreciated by them than by its
modern inhabitants. Fully 3,000 years ago, Asia Minor, as
a hunKin habitation, was already very old, and there flourished
in certain portions of it a civilization as advanced, in many
of its phases, as the later Roman culture ever was.

Along with the recognition of the economic value of various
ores, mining has assumed such importance as to have become
the means of sustenance of numerous settlements sc|attered
from the Aegean coastland to the Persian Gulf. Within that
territory, empire after empire had risen to power, and passed
into oblivion. Colonies of the vanished kingdoms of Sumner
and Akad, preceding the Babylonian Empire itself, has flour-
ished in the fifth millenium B. C. With the westward march
of progress, the Hittite power come into being; and finally, the
ten centuries immediately preceding the birth of Christ wit-
nessed an unparallalled growth of civilization on the eastern
shore of the Aegean Sea. During this period Greek paganism
evolved a highly-advanced organized life. In each of these
successive stages of culture, the art of working ores was profit-
alby carried on; the metals being respectively valued according
to their relative abundance and usefulness, or commercial im-
portance.

This active mining operations started 2000 years B. C, were
carried on pregressively up to the end of the eleventh century
A. D., when barbarians of Turkestan invaded the country. Sub-
sequent to this period centuries of corruption and misrule barred
the development of the industry.

To prospect on Turkish soil was usually a hazardous under-
taking because of the lack of orderly government. The geolo-
gist Was hindered in his field work; general knowledge of the
geology of Turkey was, therefore, fragamentary. No attempts
have been made to establish an active geological survey.

Through the pressure exerted by the embassies, foreigners

have travelled through the provinces under the safeguard of a
military escort. It is due to them that we know something
regarding the geological and mining features of the region. The
country itself has been impoverished to such an extent as to
be utterly unable to finance any commercial undertaking what-
ever. Corrupt officialdom, unfavorable mining laws and the
absence of roads, all have been contributed to prevent mining
from becoming a prosperous industry. Except at mines situ-
ated near the Coast, the necessary machinery for working
could not be installed, owing to the transport difficulties. The
introduction of electrical machinery has been prbhibited, ex-
cept under very special circumstances, while the admission of
explosives has always been a matter of the greatest difficulty
and expense. Under these conditions it is not to be wondered
at that capitalists have been shy of investing in mining under-
takings.

The momentous political change that has recently taken place
in Turkey, through the victory of Allied Nations, invites our
attention to the mineral resources of the country. Through the
annihilation of Turkish terror, a barrier against the civilization
and progress, and through the freedom of Armenian element
in Turkey, granting them an independent government under
the mandate of an advanced nation like America, there cannot
be any doubt that a liberal and well dministrted mining law
will be established; a strong department of mines with a com-
petent staff of mining engineers, will be formed; capital for
developing mineral property will flow into the country to the
great advantage of the national finances; the railways, an im-
portant factor in the expnsion of mining enterprise will soon
develop.

Flourishing industries therefore, are perforce subordinate to
the existence of order and peace. Fortunately, there is reason
to believe that the nation who will kindly lead us will intend to
carry out a broad-minded policy to favor the expansion of min-
ing and its allied industries in our own country. With the adop-
tion of such a course many inttJoresting features of technical
practice in these territories will doubtless be revealed within
the next decade or so. Most mining engineers are familiar
with the admirable results obtained in Mexico, within a com-
paratively short period of time, nor is the result of push and
energy in our own country less strikng.

Comparisons are instructive, at times, and it was futile to
belittle the importance of granting due recognition to modern
industrial tendencies as exhibited in the practice of the more
advanced nations. A study of these features and the causes
conductive thereto, may advantageously shape the policy to be
adopted by those upon whom the responsibility of developing
the country's* natural resources has been thrust.

Hagop a. Karajian.
New York, Jan. 1920.

CONTENTS.
Contents 9-13

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Bibliography 15-25

INTRODUCTION.
Origin of mining and metallurgy. — Period of active
mining. — Structure and geology in mining. — Mining by
foreign capital. — Summary of most important mines 27-29

STRUCTURE.
General orography of Asia. — Mountain chains. — Low-
lying plains. — Causes of gigantic wrinkles. — Three great
arcs. — Three great approximiations 31-36

NATURAL BARRIERS.
Northern peripheral regions. — Southern chains. Kara —
bagh region. — Ararat system 36-38

TOPGRAPHY.
Armenia : — Northern border ranges. — Southern border
ranges. — Central highlands. Anatolia: — Northern border
ranges. — Central depression. — Ionian sea board. — Eastern
border ranges 38-42

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

Armenia: — As integral member of Asiatic tableland. —
Idiosyncrasies. — Higher plain levels. — Eruptive actions. —
Depressions. — Rocks. — Prominent surface features

Anatolia: — General phases of the surface. — Plateau
formations. — Central plain. — Deposits of the central plain. 42-49

TECTONIC FEATURES.
Armenia : — Folds and faults. — Northern folds. — Central
folds. — Southern folds. Anatolia: — Northern folds. —
Southern folds. — Folds of western Anatolia. — Eastern
folds 49-59

10 MINERAL RESOURCES

GEOLOGICAL SERIES.
Armenia : — General summary. — Pre-Devonic rocks. —
Devonic series and fauna. — Carboniferous rocks and
fauna: — Permo-Triassic. — Jurassic. — • Dogger (Bajocian
tuff). — ^Malm (CaUovian, Kimmeridjian, Tithonian) and
fauna. — Lower Cretaceous (Neocominian or Hauterivian,
Aptian) and fauna. — Upper Cretaceous (Albian, Cenoman-
ian; Turonian, Senonian) and fauna. — Oligocene and
fauna. — Lower Miocene (Tortonian, Helvetian) and
fauna. — Upper Miocene (Sarmatian) and fauna. — Plio-
cene and fauna. — Pleistocene and fauna. — Glacial action.
Anatolia : — General summary. — Silurian and fauna. —
Devonian and fauna. — Carboniferous and fauna. — Perm-
ian and fauna. — Triassic and fauna. — Jurassic and
fauna. — Cretaceous and fauna. — Eocene and fauna. —
Oligocene and fauna. — Miocene and fauna. — Pliocene
and fauna. — Pleistocene and fauna. — Glacial action 59-82

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.
Armenia: — Features of Pre-Devonic period. — Features
of Devonian. — Features of Carbonic age. — Permo-Trias-
sic conditions. — Jurassic features. — Cretaceous condi-
tions. — Features of Eocene. — Features of Oligocene. —
Features of Miocene. — Features of Pliocene. — Features
of Pleistocene. Anatolia: — Pre-Devonic condiflons. —
Transition conditions. — Devonic Features. — Conditions of
Carbonic age. — Features of Jurassic. — Features of Cre-
taceous. — Features of Lower Tertiary. — Features of
Middle Tertiary. — Features of Upper Tertiary 82-91

ERUPTIVE ROCKS.
Armenia : — Ultra basic. — Basic. — Medium acidic.^
Acidi. Anatolia : — Trachytes. — Dolerites. — Pyroxenes. —
Porphyries.— Serpentines.— Diorites. — Eurites and quartz
porphyries.— Basalts.— Volcanic tuffs. 91-98

NON-METALLIC MINERALS.
COAL.
Anatolian coal fields and their occurrence. — Coal fields

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA ii

of Armenia. — Cilician and Tauric Mountain coals. — Coal
fields of Caucasian Armenia. — Future prospects 99-109

PETROLEUM.
General remarks on oil possibilities of Anatolia and
Armenia. — Oil in Dardanelles district. — Oil in Smyrna. —
Oil in Armenia. — Oil resources of Caucasian Armenia. —
Chatma fields. — Balakhany, Romany, Zabrat, etc., fields. — ',
Binagadi fields. — Puta oil fields. — Khordalan oil fields. —
Digga-Sarai, etc., fields. — Origin of oils 109-119

SALT.
Mining of salt in Turkey. — Origin of salt deposits. — 1
Rock salt deposits in Anatolia and Armenia. — Salts of
marine or lacustrine origin. — Salt lakes of Anatolia. —
Salt lakes of Armenia. — Analysis of waters of Lake Van
and Urmi 1 19-126

BORAX.
Borate deposits of Sultan Tchair. — Origin and occur-
rences of borate. — Borate of Lake Urmi. — ^Annual pro-
duction 126-128

EMERY.
Discovery of emery. — Emery deposits of western Ana-
tolia. — Origin and occurrences of Emery. — Emery deposits
of Caucasian Armenia. — ^Annual production 129-130

MEERCHAUM.
Sepiolite of Eski-Shehr. — Origin and occurrences. —
Methods of mining 130-132

SULPHUR.
Brimstone deposits of Dardanelles. — Sulphur at Bech-
anach and Daralagoz. — Deposits produced from sulphur
springs. — Deposits from fumerols of volcanoes 132

ALUM.
Alum deposits of Shabin-Karahissar. — Methods of ex-
traction. — ^Origin and occurrences. — Chemical analysis of
Alum. — Alunite of Caucasian Armenia I33-I35

12 MINERAL RESOURCES

LIMESTONES.
Onyx. — Lithographic stones. — Argillaceous Calcite-Mar-
ble.— Chalk 135-136

GYPSUM.
Occurrences and origin of gypsum in Armenia and Ana-
tolia. — Gypsum associated with carbonates and sulphates. 136

NITRATES.
The beds of sodium nitrates. — Occurrences and origin. —
Association 136

CLAYS.
Occurrences and origin of clays. — Fuller's earth. —
Kaoline 136

AGATES.
Agates of Anatolia.— Agates of Pontus 137

SILICEOUS MARLS.
Siliceous marl at Kessatib. — Siliceous marl of Erzerum. 137

METALLIC MINERALS.
GOLD.

Geology and history of Anatolian gold fields. — Pontic
gold fields. — Tauric gold fields. — Gold in Armenia. — ^An-
nual production 138-149

SILVER.
Silver associated with lead. — Silver resources of
Pontus. — Silver in Caucasian Armenia. — Silver deposits
in Armenia. — Argentiferous-lead mine of Keban-
Maden. — Argentiferous - lead deposits of Boulgar-
Maden. — Silver occurrences in western Anatolia. — Argen-
tiferous-lead of Balia-Maden. — Annual production 149-161

COPPER.
Occurrence of copper. — Copper deposits of Pontus. —
Copper deposits of Caucasian Armenia. — Kedabeg mine. —
Allahverdi mine. — Elvach mine. — Copper mines of Ar-
menia. — Argana-Maden copper deposits. — ^Annual pro-
duction 161-168

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 13

IRON.
Iron deposits of Trebizond. — Iron in Caucasian Ar-
menia. — Iron ores in Bulghar-dagh. — Iron in Zeitun. —
Iron in Smyrna 168-171

CHROME.
Discovery of Chrome. — Occurrences and origin of
chrome. — Chrome deposits of Anatolia. — Annual pro-
duction 171-174

MANGANESE.
Deposits of Transcaucia. — Occurrence and its origin. —
Manganese ore deposits of Anatolia and Armenia 174-178

MERCURY.
Deposits of Konia Mercury mine. — Occurrences and
origin. — History of discovery. — Karabournou cinnabar
deposits. — Extraction of mercury. — Annual production. . 178-182

ANTIMONY.
Anatolian antimony deposits. — Occurrences and ori-
gin. — Deposits of Broussa. — Deposits of Smyrna. — De-
posits of Sivas. — Annual production 182-183

LEAD.
Lead mines of Anatolia. — Lead mines of Armenia. —
Lead from Balia Silver Mine. — Lead from Boulgar-
Maden. — Lead from Kebban-Maden. — Annual pro-
duction 183-185

ZINC.
Calamine deposits of Karasu and Adana. — Zinc at
Bazar. — Zinc at Kirasliyaila. — Zinc in Smyrna. — Zinc ex-
tracted from Balia silver mine. — Annual production 185

TIN.
Cassiterite of Kurbaba. — Tin ores found in Caucasian
Armenia. — Tin found near Aleppo 186

14 MINERAL RESOURCES

ARSENIC.
Realgar in Armenia. — Realgar in Taurus. — ^Arsenopy-
rite in Anatolia. — Arsenic associated with antimony oc-
curs in Elkhur. — Annual production i86

COBALT.
Deposits of Caucasian Armenia. — Occurrences and origin. 187

INDEX.
I. Geographical. — II. Mineral and Geological 189

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i6 MINERAL RESOURCES

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ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 17

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ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 19

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20 MINERAL RESOURCES

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87. Lacroix, A. Les roches a leucite de Terbizond. Bull.

Soc. geol, France, Ser. Ill XIX, 732-748. Paris 1889.

88. " Les roches vole, a leucite de Trabizond C. R. Ac.

Sci. CXXVIII, I, 128-130, Paris 1899.

89. Lannay, de L. Traite de metallogenie, Gites mineraux et

Metallifere. Paris 191 3, 3 vols.

90. " La Geologic et les Richesses minerales de I'Asie

Mineure, Paris 191 1.

91. Lebedev, N. I. Gold in Kaukasus und im Flusz talc von

Tchoro(^h (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. Ser. "Ill, i,
(2) 83-159, Tiflis 1898.

92. " Kieselguhr von Kissatib (Russ.) Ibid, Ser. Ill, 11,

(2) 43-54. Tiflis, 1899.

93. " Die Lamlungen d. Kauk. Museums, IIII Geol.

Tiflis.
94 " Geol. Forsch im Gebeite von Bortschalinsk (Som-

khetien) (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc, ser. Ill, ill. (2)
111-160, Tiflis 1902.

95. Leriche, M. Notes inedites, ingenieure au Service des

mines d'Egypte, 1901.

96. Loftus, W. K. Geology of portions of the Turco-Persian

frontier. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. XL 247-344, Lon-
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97. Lowinson-Lessing, F. La Porphyrite andesitique a am-

phibole de Deveboyum, Bull. Soc. beige, geol. I., no.
Brussel, 1888.

98. Maunsell, F. R. Eastern Turkey in Asia and Armenia,

Geol. Mag. XII. 225, Edinburg, 1896.

99. Margolius, A. Salswerke in Transkaukasien (Russ.)

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 21

Ansgabe d. Kauk. Berg verwaltung. Tiflis, 1906.
100. May, W. Die bergbaul, verhattn in der Tiirkei. Osterr.

Zeitich, f. Berg, und Hutten-wesen. Wein, Mai. 1896.
loi. Mitter mayer, K. Beitr. z. Kenntnis d. Mikrofauna d. ob.

Kreideschichten von Trans Kaukasien. Erlangen

1896..

102. Moller W. und M. Denisson, Die nutzbaren Mineralien

und die Mineralquellen d. Kauk. Gebiets (Russ.) St.
Petersburg, 1900.

103. Monachi,F. P. Passengna Minerara April 11, 1908.

103. Morgan, J. de Mission Scientifique au Caucase. Paris
1889.

105. Murrey. On the deposits of the Black Sea. The Scott.

Geog. Mag. T. 16, 1900, p. 673-702.

106. Muschketow, J. Mat. rec. sur le tremblement de terre

d'Akhalkalaki du 19 dec. 1899 (Russ.) Mem. com.
Geol. n. s. I. St. Petersburg, 1903.

107. Naumann, Vom Goldnen Horn su den Quellen des Eu-

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108. " Die Grundlinen Anatoliens (Georg. zeitschrift d.

Hettner, 11 725.

109. Neumayer M. und V. Uhlig, Uber die von H. Abich im

Kaukasus gesam melten Jurafossilien-Denkschr.
Wiener Akad. LIX, 1-122, Wien, 1892.
no. Newton, R. B. Marine Tertiary molusca of Lake Urmi
etc. Journ. Linn. Soc. XXVII, 430-453, London 1900.

111. Nicou, P Le Cuivre en Transcaucasie, Ann. des Mines,

ser 10, 10, VI, 1-54 .Paris 1904.

112. Ohrn, A. Die erzlagerstatte von Katar und Kavast Russ.

Mat. Geol. Cauc. Ser. in, IX. 1-214. Tiflis 1910.

113. " Die eisenerze von Tschatach (Russ.), Ibid. Ser.

Ill, VII, 182-193, Tiflis, 1909.

114. Opperheim, P. Die Priabonaschechten und ihre Fauna

Palaontographica, XLVII, 305-307 Miinchen, 1900.
don 1905.

115. Oswald, F. A treatise on the Geology of Armenia, Lon-

116. " A geological map of Armenia etc., with explana-

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[17. " Zur tektomischen entwick lungsgeschichat d'Armen.

22 MINERAL RESOURCES

Hochlandes. Peterm. Mitt. Heft 1-3. Gotha, 1910.

118. Pelekan, A. Petrogr. Unter suchungen von eruptinges

tienen aus d. Kaukasuslan dern. Beitr. Pal. Osterr.
Ung. IX. 83, Wien, 1894.

119. Percy E. Highland of Asiatic Turkey, London, 1901.

120. Phillips, J. A. Henry Louis A treatise on Ore deposits.

London, 1896.

121. Philipson A. Geologische geographische Reis Kizzen aus

dem Orient (sitzungslier. Niederrheim Ges. f.
Nature und Heilk. Bonn.)

122. Pollington, V. journey from Erzerum to Aleppo, 1838

J. R. G. S. X. 445-54. London 1841.

123. Pompeckj, J. F. Palaont. und stratigr. Notizen aus Ana-

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Berlin 1897.

124. Redlick, K. G. Der jura der Umgebung von Alt-Achtala.

Beitre. Pal. Osterr-Ung. IX. 55, wien 1894.

125. Rath, G. V. Ueuber Pandermit (Ges. f. Naturk. za

Bonn.) 1877.

126. Ralli, G. La bassin houiller d'Heraclee (Ann. Sov. geoL

de Belgique, Liege XXIII. p. 151-267. pi. iii-XIX>
1895-96.

127. " The lead mines of Balia. Eng. & Ming. Jour., Feb.

18, 1904.

128. Segalj, J. Der weifse Marmor von Chatschbulag (Russ.)

Kawkas, 1895, Ne. 14.

129. Seward, A. C. Jurassic plants from Caucasia and Turkes-

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1907.

130. Sevens, C. Manganese ore industry of Transcaucasua

(Colliary Guardian t. 75 p. 809 Dondres.

131. Schlehan Verhuch einer geognost. Beschr, der Gegend

zwischen Amasry und Tyrla-Asy on der Nord-Kiiste

132. Sharpless, F. F. Konia Mercury Mines, Eng. & Mng.

Joum. Sept. 26, 1908.

133. Sieger, R. Die Schwankungen d. hocharmen. Seen Seit

1800 etc. Mitt d. geogr. Ges. in Wien, XXXI, 95,
159. 390. Wien 1888.

134. Simon, A. L. Notes on the Sangesur copper-mines Trans.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 23

Inst, mining and Metallurgy, XVIII, 413-419 London

135. Simonowitsch, S. Geol. Beob. au No. Abhang d. Thrialet-

1909.

ischen — Geberges (Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. ser. I.

VIII (2), 1-69. Tiflis, 1878.

136. " Geol. Beob. der Flufsta ler der Chram. Alget, Mas-

chawera. Bortschal und Debeda (Russ.) Ibid. ser.
III. IV., (3) 105-118. Tiflis 1902.

137. " u. A. Sorokin, Geologic d. Tertiabeckens von

Achalzik (Russ.) Ibid. ser. I., XIII (i), 1-29. Tiflie
1886.

138. Smyth, W. W. Geol. Features of the country round the

mines of the Taurus, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. I.
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of the Gulf of Smyrna and promontory of Kara-
bouroun (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. & I. p. 156-160.)

140. " On the Fresh water deposits of Levant (Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc. t. XIV p. 212) 1864.
[41. Spurr, J. E. Mineral resources of the Turkey, Eng. Mng.
Journal, Sept. 6, 1912 & Oct. 4, 1902.

142. Stassinopoulos Le bassin houiller d'Heraclee, (Bull, no

189 et 259 com, fr. Constantinople 48 p. et i pi.)
— Rev. S. Afr. 19 Avril, 1908 p. 332.

143. Steinmann, G. & Wilckens, O. Handbuch der Regionalen

Geologie Armenichen, 1914.

144. Suess, S. Dass Antiltz der Erde 11, 632, 776, 11 1628,

Leipzig, 1885 etc. — Soc. cit. iii, 428, Soc. cit. I.
655-62.

145. Taylor, J. G. Travels in Kurdistan, Journ. Roy. Geogr.

Soc. XXXV, 21-58 London 1865.

146. " Journal of a tour in Armenia, etc. Ibid XXXVIII,

281-361. London 1868.

147. Thompson, B. The Oil Fields of Russia, 1904.

148. " The Oil Field development, 1916.

149. Tschihatscheff, P. Asie Mineure: Geol. et Paleontologie,

6 vols, in 4 parts. 4th part in 3 vols. Paris 1853-69.

150. " La geologie & orographic dune partie de I'Armcnie

24 MINERAL RESOURCES

Comptes rendus, Acad. Sc. XLVII, 446-48, 551-47.
Paris 1858.

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152. Thost, C. Mikrosk, Studien an Geiteinen d. Kara bagh-

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Frankfurt a. M. 1894.

153. Texier, C. Description de L'Armenie, Vol. I, Paris 1842.

154. Tozer, H. F. Turkish-Armenia and Asia Minor, London

1881.

155. Tsulukidse, G. Archipow u. Chalatow, Geol. Forsch, in

d. Gebeitin von Nachitschewan, eriwan und Sangesur
(Russ.) Mat. Geol. Cauc. Sir. I. i, Tiflis. 1870.

156. " Geol. Forsch un Bezirk von Nachitschewan

(Russ.) Ibid. Sen 11, i, 1-162. Tiflis 1887.

157. Valentin, J. Bericht uber meine Reise nach Tiflis etc.,

Ber. Lenck. Naturf. Ges. 159-239. Frankfurt, a. M.
1891.

158. Viquensel, A. Sur la collection des roches recuellies en

Asie par feu Hommaide de Hell. Bull. Soc. Geol.
France Ser. 2 VII 491, Paris 1850.

159. Lettre sur les environs de Constantinople (B. S.
G. F. 2e ser t. VII p. 508-516.

160. Vogt & Rrusch Ore deposits-Beiychilac. Trans, by S.

J. Truscott, London 1914, 2 vols.

161. Voskoboinkov, M. Notices diverses sur I'Armenie In.

Boue a mem. Geol. & paleont. I. 276-294, Paris 1832.

162. Wacster, W. Die Kauk. Armen. Erdbebenzone, Zeitschr f.

Naturn. LXXV 53-64. Stuttgart, 1903.

163. Wagner, M. Reise Nach. 4 Ararat etc. Stuttgart, 1848.

164. " Reisnach Persien etc., Leipzig, 1852.

165. Weitsofor, K. A. Jura und Kreide aus NVV — Persien

Sitzungsber K. K. Akad. Wiss. Math. Naturw.
CLXCVIII (i) 756. Wien 1889.

166. Weiss, H. E. Kurze mittheilungen uber lagerstatten im

westlichen Anatolien (Z. F. p. G. 253) 1901.

167. Woodward, S. P. On the structure and affinities of the

Hippuritidae. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. XL 58, Lon-
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168. Weed, H. W. Copper deposits of the world, 1907, p. 107.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 25

169. Wilkinson, W. F. Notes on the geology and mineral re-

sources of Anatolia (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. t. LI. p.

95-98.

170. Wunsch, J. Die Flufslaufe d. Komur etc. Mitt. K. K.

Geogr. Ges. Ser. 2. XXVII, 201-219. Wien 1884.

171. " Die Quede d. westl. Tigrisarnes etc. Ibid. Ser. 2,

XXVIII, 1-21, Wien 1885.

172. Yorke, V. A journey in the Valley of the Upper Eu-

phrates, G. L. VIII. 317, London 1896.

173. Zahn, G. v. Die Stellung Armeniens in Gebergsban von

Vonderasien etc. Veroflf d. Inst. f. Meeres-Kinde,
Berlin, 1906.

174. Zeiller, R. Etude sur la flore fossile du bassin d'Heraclee

Soc. Geol. de Fr. Mem. de Paleont. VIII et IX. 21,
91 p. et 6 pi.) 1889-1901.

175. Mineral Industry, years from 1895 to 1915.

176. Engineering & Mining Journal — years from 1885 to 1915.

177. Engineering & Scientific Press — years from 1890 to 191 5.

INTRODUCTION.

The lack of Aryan roots for the names of metals com-
monly known among the Aryan settlers of Asia-Minor, as well
as the later colonizers of Europe,' indicates that these races were
generally ignorant of the use of metals until they came in con-
tact with Semetic peoples. Practically all mining terms in current
use among the earliest Greeks resemhle very strongly their
distinctly Sem!itic equivalents, which can be traced all the way
in a broad belt beginning in the Lower Mesopotamia and ex-
tending westwardly to the Syrian Shores of the Mediterranean.
The Greek work "Metallon" for instance, used indiscriminately
to designate mine or ore, probably came from the earlier Semitic
equivalent, "metal." Or again the Greek words "Chrysos"
(gold) and Chalkos" (copper) seem to be descended from the
Semitic forms "Chrouts" and Chalak." It is a natural in-
ference that primitive mining methods were evolved by the
dwellers in the mineralized areas of Asia Minor, from whom
later Greeks, Roman and even North European miners obtained
their first notions of the reduction of metallic ores, by virtue of a
general westward migration of mining and metallurgy.

Anatolia and Armenia have been the seat of active mining
operations from about 2000 years B. C. to the end of the
eleventh century. Subsequent to this period, centuries corrup-
tion and misrule barred the development of industry. With few
exceptions, all the remains today, consists of innumerable old
workings scattered throughout the coimtry.

An interesting relation between orographic and geological
features and the occurences of mineral deposits is observable.
The westernmost projection of the Asiatic continent may be
likened to a bowl, the rim of which is partly formed by the
coastal mountain chains, the rest being completed by the ele-
vated ranges of eastern Armenia. The interior of the bowl
is made up of the plateaus which, so far, are not known to be
extensively mineralized. At all events, the bulk of the known
metallic ore depoists lie in the folds of the marginal uplifts,
and the non-metallic minerals lie in the beds of pjateau forma-

28 MINERAL RESOURCES

tions.

The mining operations carried on so far are all by foreign
companies, the capital being supplied from England, France
and Germany. Concessions are granted by the government for
99 years, the companies being required to pay 5% royalty, 1%
export duty, and a yearly tax of from 40 to 50c per hectare.
This was a general rule, although some concessions formerly
granted for mining chrome ore and emery for a period of 60
years with a royalty of 10 per cent. Salt was a government
monopoly.

The most important ore deposits which are capable of de^
velopment under expert management and sufficient outlay are
summarized as follows :

t. Magnetic iron beds at Ayas-mand, north of Smyrna;
limonite iron beds of Bulgar-dagh, Cilician Tanrus; and a rich
hematite in Zeitun district, at the foot of the eastern slope of
Anti-Taurus (Beiroot-dagh).

2. Chrome ores are widely distributed in Daghardi-Kutahia, in
N. W. Anatolia; Makri, on the S. W. coast of Asia Minor;
in the neighborhood of Alexandretta, on S. E. Asia Minor, and
at Argana-Maden, north of Diarbekir. In peace times the chrome
ores of Asia Minor have met the competition of richer ores.

3. Copper ores are widely distributed on Black Sea Coast, espe-
cially in the state of Trebizond; Taurus mountains, especially in
Palu and Argana at Arghana-Maden, 65 Km. N. W. the principal
bed's extension is equivalent to 1.7 to 2 million tons containing
lo-i I percent copper. In the west part of the Caucasus (the re-
gion Batum-Kars) Khvarzkhana, near Artvin, south of Batum,
had a copper mining and smelting works, ready before the war
but never operated, belonging to the Siemens family and capable
of yielding 2000 tons of copper a year. In the same region an
American Company possesses a mining and smelting works at
Dzanzul, which produced 3030 tons of copper in 191 2 and 4000
tons in 1914, i. e., one third of the whole Caucasus ouput, and
one tenth of that of Rttssia.

4. Occurences of lead and zinc ores are comparatively im-
portant and promising, especially Balia Karaidin 40 Km. N. W.
of Bali Kesri, N. W. Asia Minor, the property of a Franco-
Belgian Company. Output in 1913, 13076 tons of crude lead

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 29

and 5000 tons of zinc. Amount of ore shown by explorations
300,000 to 350,000 tons; farther explorations may show more.
Bulghar-Maden, in the Taurus in S. E. Asia Minor, Turkish
state property, has some mining so far little developed in the
very argentiferous cementation zone. The bed stretches for some
20 Km. in length, and lies only 16 Km. as crow flies from the
Baghdad railway.

5. Rock salt is widely distributed but the Calcium borate of
Soultan-Chair, 65 Km. south of Panderma, on the Sea of Mar-
mora, is very important as a raw material for metal working,
and valuable for glass, enamel, and tanning purposes. The pan-
dermite beds, frequently interrupted, embedded in gypsum and
attaining a thickness of 4.5 m. consists of small and large lenti-
cular masses of the milk white mineral. The value of the de-
posits, which in the most part is the possession of an English
Company, is effected by the irregularity of the gypsum and pan-
dermite deposits. Out of the hitherto developed area of 0.859
Km., 281,095 tons pandermite with 45% Borate contant, have
been won in the last 27 years. Some 100,000 tons are still
available.

6. Coal occurs at Heraclea (Eregli) or Zonguldak, on the
south coast of Bleak Sea, in some 22 beds Worth working with
40 m. of coal, which has however a great deal of ash and cokes
badly. It is worked by a French Company. Amasra, 50 Km.
E. Sogut-Oezu and Ooesgeu where the coal is better and cokes
better (South of the harbor of Idde) are also on the line of the
coal formations, which extend altogether to lyoKm. in length.
The best lignite is formed at Soma, N. E. of Smyrna, is 15 m.
thick, and develops 5200 thermal units; poorer stuff, of local
importance only, is .to be found at Sivas, in E. Anatolia.

PART I.

STRUCTURE AND GEOLOGY
General Structure of Asia.

From the Mediterranean to the Pacific the Asiatic Continent
is traversed by a zone of elevated country, which flanked on the
north and south by great chains of mountains, breaks off on the
west to the Aegean Sea and to the lowlands of China on the
east. Extensive areas of land with considerably lesser altitude
are outspread on either side of this gigantic system; in the north
the plains of Russia and Siberia, in the south the peninsulas of
Arabia and India. The mountain chains which confine the zone
of elevated country have been reared during different geological
periods; yet they are subject to common laws. They are dis-
posed in extensive acrs, of greater or lesser curvature, which are
festooned across the continent on either side of the plateau region
with a general direction from east to west. The plateau region
is in general syclinal or in other words, of slightly hollow sur-
face, and in comparison with the flanking ranges are flat.

Our Globe sails through the wan expanse of ether, diffusing
the heat with which it is charged. Cooling crust shrinks and
gathers inwards toward the centre; but the material of which
it consists is inelastic and is thrown into gigantic wrinkles or
folds. Radial contraction induces tengential stresses at the sur-
face, collossal forces which bind over and invert the folds and
even thrust the strata one beneath another, causing them to be
disposed like the tiles upon a roof. This lateral tension finds
most relief where the crust is weakest and it is at such points,
or along such zones, that the process of mountain making has
been developed on the largest scale. It is the tendency of such
folded ranges to form arcs of large curvature, which are drawn
inwards where the lateral pressure meets with most resistance,
and expand outwards, where it is withstood in a lesser degree.

In Asia the operation of this process of mountain making has
been accompanied by, or has proceeded, the elevation in masses

32 MINERAL RESOUCES

of large portions of the earth's crust. The intensely folded re-
gions, or in other words, the great chain of mountains, are found
along the inner and the outer margins of the elevated mass.
Between these zones the stratified rocks have no doubt been sub-
jected to the folding process; yet they have escaped the im-
mense contortions that have taken place on either side.

Throughout the Continent the lateral force which has been
most operative in mountain making has proceeded from the
north. The fact may perhaps be explained by supposing that
this force is the result of the active pressure extended by the
hard, unyielding material of which the steppes of Siberia and
the basin of the Arctic Ocean are composed. The great arcs
which are described, by the mountain ranges are in general con-
vex to the south. Thus in Western Asia the chains on the inner
and outer margins of the elevated are disposed on two roughly
parallel series of arcs bulging towards the south. Of these series
the inner arcs have less curvature than the outer, to which they
are roughly parallel.

The inner series may be traced with greatest singleness of
feature on the west of Hinda-Kush that natural centre of the
rrtountain systems of Asia, which at once supplies the most con-
ventient standpoint for a general survey of the structure of the
eontient, and is placed at the junction of the two great divisions,
western and eastern, into which geographers have partitioned
this vast area. The Hindu-Kush inclines over into the Poro-
pamisus; and the southern portion of the latter range is con-
tinued, on the north of Persia, by the mountains of Khorasan.
A sharp bend in the belt, just east of the Caspian, turns south-
wards into the Elburz range, and the beautiful curve of the
chain along the margin of the shore may be admired from the
waters of that inland sea. The line of Elburz range, and the
beautiful curve of the chain along the margin of the shore may
be admired from the waters of that inland sea. The line of
Elburz range is protracted across the depression of the Araxes
Valley into the peaks of Karabagh; while the Karabagh sys-
tem unites with the bold and lofty ridges which in full face of
their gigantic neighbor, the Caucasus overtower the right bank
of the Kur. These ridges again connect with the chain between
Kutais and Akhaltsykh, a chain which joins the mountains on

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

33

34 MINERAL RESOURCES

the southern shore of the Black Sea. The Pontic range forms
a bow of wide span and gentle curvature, ending in the hump
of Anatolia, where it meets the arc of the Bithynian border hills.

The parrallel series on the outer margin of the elevated area
commences with the outer arc of the Hindu Kush system, the
severly bend and S shaped Salt Range. Thence it proceeds into
the mountains which flank Persia upon the east and belong to
the outer Iranian arc. The bold sweep of this arc into the chain
of Zagros may be recognized by a glance at the map. The
greater protraction of the north western arm of the bow, is a
feature which may be traced in the configuration of the most of
the great Asiatic chains. The clean and uniform outline of the
curve, broken only by a slight indent at the straits of Ormuz,
which may be answered by the bend in the inner system which is
already noticed on the east of Caspian Sea. The outer Iranian
arc effects a junction with the Tauris Ranges along two parallel
but fairly distinct orographical lines. Of these the inner line
crosses over from the Zagros to the Ararat system, known as the
Aghri or Shatin-dagh. It is in the Shantin-dagh that the bend
to the west-southwest is effected, which may be followed through
a series of volcanoes into the Anti-Taurus and the Mediterran-
ean range. The outer line is formed by the Kurdish mountains.
This principle chain of Taurus extends to the coast of Syria and
emerges from the sea in the island of Cyprus and in manv a
headland and island of this Anatolian coast.

These double series of arcs, from Hindu-Kush to Mediterran-
ean, meet or almost meet at three distinctly traceable and widely
separated points. Such approximations occur in Hindu-Kush,
in Armenia, and in the mountainous districts which border the
Ionian sea board. We can scarcely doubt that they are due to
the incidence of a strong opposing force, moving from the south
and causing the arcs to be constricted, the range to be piled up
one behind another and mountain development to assume its'
grandest forms. It is probable that the resisting pressure has
been furnished in the first two cases by the Indian and Arabian
peninsulas. Another feature, less obvious but not less note-
worthy, is furnished by the fact that in Armenia and Asia Minor
the arcs have been fractured in the process of bending over at
or near the points where the approximations between the two

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 35

series have taken place. The closer the constriction the sharper,
of course becomes the curve and the greater the tendency to
split. In Anatolia the union of the series has resulted in com-
plete fracture; the folded area sinks beneath the waters of the
Aegean to be represented by the islands which stud the Archipe-
lago, and, further west, by the mountains of the Dalmation coast.
On the east of Hindu-Kush we are as yet in want of sufficient
material for so convincing an analysis as the researchers of geolo-
gists have rendered possible on the west.

In eastern Asia a vast area of elevated land is bounded both
along the inner and the outer margins by mountain system of
wide extension and great heights. Such are the systems of Altai
and Tean-Shan upon the north, and the mighty bow of the
Himalayas on the south. Probably the Kuenlan range carrif*
over the inner series of Western Asia, extending eastwards from
Pamirs and senang as buttress to the immensely elevated plateau
of Tibet. If this view be correct, then the Tian Shan and Altai
systems may perhapte be regarded as minor earth-waves, follow-
ing close upon the heels of, the Kuenlan and supporting the
highlands of the Tarim basin and the desert of Gobi, the Han-
Hai or Dry Sea of the Chineese. The echelon of mountain ranges,
which extends from Hindu-Kush towards Behring Sea, forms
constant curvature of the arcs towards the south, until, in the
Altai group. The eastern arms of the- bows are protracted even
further towards the north, to contrast the low-lying plains along
the western ends of the echelon with the lofty high-lands of
Mongolia on the east. The necks of the valleys issue upon the
depression of Siberia and the low country through which the
Oxus and Jaxartis flow.

In Western Asia the elevated area with it's flanking ranges
is horded on the north by the northern Paropamisus and further
west by the Caucasus chain. The Paropamisus may perhaps be
regarded as the most southerly of the many branches which be-
long to the system of Tian-Shan. Geologists connect Paropami-
sus with the Caucasus and trace the links of the broken chain
to the mountains of Krasnododsk on the Caspian, whence a sub-
marine ridge carries the line into the mountains of Caucasus, to
be protracted far to the west, through the Crimea and emerge
from the waters of the Black Sea in the Balkans, Carpathians

36 MINERAL RESOURCES

and Alps. In this manner we see described on the north of the
Asiatic highlands, with their series of inner arcs, a further arc
of immense span and wide curvature, which is represented on
the east by the northern Paropamisus and by the Caucasus on
the west. Both these ranges may best be viewed as independent
of the inner series but Paropamisus is closely adpressed to the
inner arc of Persia, and Caucasus is joined at a ingle point to
the series namely by the Meschic linking chain. Lines of eleva-
tion similar to that which is traced from Paropamisus may be
discovered, although with less orographical distinction, proceed-
ing westwards and Struggling over towards Europe from the
more northerly branches of Tian-Shan; they are almost lost in
the great depression of the Turanian lowlands, but they follow
arcs of increasing width of span.

NATURAL BARRIERS

Although Armenia is closely linked with her neighbors and is
not separated by any natural frontier from Persia on the east
or from Anatolia on the southwest, yet it is divided by some
of the most effective of natural barriers and natural distinctions
within itself.

The northern peripheral region is an effective barrier between
Armenia and the coast of the Black Sea throughout their pro-
longation upon the confines of the tableland and has drawn the
natural frontier inward in the neighborhood of Ispir. Across
the valley of the Chorokh is the northern border heights of the
plain at Erzerum.

The southern region is an analogous zone composed by the
main chain of Taurus separating the highlands from the low-
lying plains of Mesopotamia and butteressing them upon that
side. This chain appears to have succeeded in accomplishing
the curve into the Iranian direction without undergoing fracture
to any material extent. The spine of range may be followed
along the southern shore of Lake Goljik to Palu Mountain east
of the town of Palu. Thence it is taken along the plain of
Chabakchar and left bank of Murad River to the confines of
Mush. Conspicuous with sharp peaks it stretches past the de-
pressions of Mush into the landscape of Lake Van. Through

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

37

the Karkar Mountain and further east through the Bashet Moun-
tain west of Bashkala, it makes steps southwards to the threshold
of Basin of the Great Zab; and the elevation may be traced on
the further side of river in the peaks of Jelu Mountain, said to
attain a height of between 13,000 and 14,000 feet.

The Karabagh region is another important barrier combining
in minature many of the characteristics of the Armenian high-
lands. An inner plateau region flanked by peripheral ranges.
This chain extends the area of highlands for some distince
towards the east when after commencing to incline in an east-
south-easterly direction it effects a junction with the Shah Moun-
tain. The last named ridge takes frontier along the eastern

shore of Gokcha to the confines of the Karabagh; and the ele-
vations may be traced through this spine of northern Karabagh
Mountain across the Kur to the range which faces the Caspian
Sea.

Ararat or the Aghri Dagh system constitutes the principal in-
termediate line of elevation between the northern and the south-
ern zones of peripheral mountains. This range carries the natural
frontier between the two divisions from the Kush Mountain
(11,262 ft.) in fhe west to Little Ararat (12,840 ft.) in the
east. The space between these two ranges is a distance of 100
miles and throughout that space the chain is made up of such
lofty peaks as the Ashakh Mountain (10,723 ft.) Perh Mountain
(10,647 ft-)> Salaka Mountain (10,644 ft.) and Khama Moun-
tain (11,018 ft.). The passes reach from 7,000-8,500 feet;

38 MINERAL RESOURCES

while the level of the plain of the Araxes does not exceed 3,000
ft. nor that of the plain of Alashkert 5,500 ft. In appearnce
the barrier as a whole resembles the mountains of peripheral re-
gion; there are the same deep valleys, jagged outlines, precipi-
tuous slopes. From the western shore of Lake Baluk, an up-
land sheet of water lying at a level of 7389 ft. we may trace
extension of one branch of the system along the water-parting
between Murad and Araxes. Thence the elevation may be fol-
lowed into the southern peripheral region, forming a splinter from
the chain of Zagros which has struggled upwards through the
plateau country to its very heart. The more northerly and prin-
cipal branch consists almost exclusively of recent volcanic moun-
tains, stretching from Perli Mountain, west of Great Arart. In
this neighborhood the line is taken up by the fabric of Ararat,
raising the barrier by slow stages to nearly 17,000 ft., and having
an axis from northwest to southeast. The sequence comes to
an end in the little Ararat, whose slopes descend on three sides
to fairly level plains.

TOPOGRAPHY.

A. Armenia.

A. The northern border range forms a wall which hangs
together completely in the north of a high plateau consisting of
morphologically separated elements which is regarded as uplift
or sunken portion of a hard resistant formation, which in con-
sequence of tangential pressure in the earth's crust was broken
instead of being thrown into folds. From the west towards the
east the following order is observed.

(i) The Pontic region, which forms a border on the Black
Sea, bounded on the south by rivers of Kelkid and Chorokh
and coming to sharp ridges in the Mta-Skaro, south-westward
from Datum.

(2) The Imeritian and Thrialitic rgeion, which between the
Armenian highland and the resistant Maschic horsts are inter-
polated. These regions are cut through by the picturesque Bor-
jom Valley of Kur.

(3) The Somkatian regian southwestward from Tiflis.

(4) Closely linked Gokcha-Karabagh regions. This region

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 39

repeats on a smaller scale the structure of the Armenian high-
land; namely, that of a central, relatively low volcanic plateau,
which is bordered on either side by uplifted formations of older
folded rocks ; namely the Gokcha and the eastern Karabagh and
Talish regions, being on their sides separated by the Ahar depres-
sion, which runs in equatorial direction, just as the Gokcha and
east Karabagh regions are separated by the Terter depression.

B. Southern border range show similar structural relations
to the Armenian highlands. Here the high Tauric region of old
slate borders on the relatively low-lying region of the lake Van
and of the plain of Mush. The Tauric region consists probably
of several smaller blocks. It acts, however, as a whole and its
rivers all have consequent courses; towards the west it con-
tinues in the Ousounyaila, toward the east in the high Jelu Moun-
tain. The southern spurs of these mountain chains can indeed
be taken as the western extension of the Persian Zagros Moun-
tains.

C. The Central highland possesses a significant average height.
It is, however, as its geological structure shows, in comparison
to its still higher neighboring mountains in the north and south,
a region of relative lowness. It may be devided into the following
three zones :

( 1 ) A central volcanic zone with outspread lava fields which
3:re broken into small dislocated blocks filled often with lakes.
Of these today Gokcha, Van and Urmi are the largest.

(2) The Kilkid Chorokh zone lies on the inside of the Pontic
region and consists of Antituric (S. W. — N. E. stretching) folds.
Here vulcanism plays only a subordinate part.

(3) Daralagoz zone, including the west Karabagh which in
similar manner lies on the inner side of the northeastern border
chain of mountains. This zone is a region of Iranian (N. W. —
S. E.) folding and shows a very complete succession of shales
but only sporadic vulcanism. From the eastern border chain it
is separated by the volcanic Akhmongan-Gotcha-Central Kara-
bagh zone.

A central spine of folded rocks extends through Armenia from
east to west. Its continuity is broken by diagonal depressions.
In this way the line of the Antituric Mazur-Merjan Mountain is
broken by the Erzingan depression. It is continued again in the

40 MINERAL RESOURCES

Keshish, Melpert, Miriam and Terjan Mountains to form the
southern border (Palandoken and Khan Mountains) of the
•plains' frpm the Erzerum to Paisn, and to bend easily in the
Shatin Mountain, and after a new interruption in the deep de-
pression of the Middle Araxes, to rise through the Zynlerly and
Daralagoz to the high chain of west Karabagh which turns to
the direction of Iran.

B. Anatolia.

A. Northern border range. — Anatolia is skirted on the north
by broken series of mountains radiating from the northern Ar-
menian tiplands. The Pontic range here forms a bow of wide
span and gentle curvature ending in the hump of Anatolia
where it meets the arc of the Bithynian border hills. These up-
lands merge imperceptibly in the Central Plateau which are
themselves furrowed in every direction by river valleys. All
these show similar structural relations to the Pontic chain, and
are crossed at various ponits by passes generally at low elevations
and of moderately easy access from the Black Sea to Central
Plateau leading from east to west.

1. Trebizond over the Kolat-dagh to Erzeum.

2. Samson to Amassia.

3. Sinope to Amassia.

4. Ineboli to Kastamouni and Angora.

B. Central depression or Lycaonian Plateau.— A plateau for-
mation prevails throughout the interior of the peninsula forming
an extensive tableland at a mean elevation of from 2500 — ^4000
feet above sea level and stretching northeast and southwest for
a distance of over 200 miles with an average breadth of about
140 miles.- Plateau rises from west to east and attains its great-

,est altitude above 7000 feet near Erzerum. Above this table-
land rises several ranges, while over its surface are scattered a
number of salt lakes, morasses and water-courses without any
visible out-flow seawards. Its western face is broken by broad
valleys, and only in case of Olympus (7600 ft.) rises much
higher than 2500 feet. Plateau is buttressed on the north by
Pontic chains which varies in height and rises abruptly from the
sea. On the south it is similarly buttressed by the Taurus range
which in places has an altitude from 7000 — 12000 ft.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 41

C. The southern border ranges. — All the more elevated lands
and main ranges are massed along the Mediterranean seaboard,
showing similar structural- 'relations to the southern Armenian
highlands. These highlands consists both of Anti-Taurus and
Cilician Taurus chains extending along the Mediterranean coast
by the local names of Isaurian, Pisidian, andLycian Taurus, all
belonging to the same orographic system. The range is inter-
rupted only by a slight intervening faults, This system is also
crossed by passes at various point as follows :

1. Syria, on the east, is Separated from Cilicia by the gorge
of Jibum and broken down to the lowlands of Mesopotamia in a
series of rock terraces seamed by deep ravines.

2. Anti-Taurus is separated frm Cilician Taurus by Zamantia-
Su, a tributary of Sihun.

3. Anatolia is separated from North Syria and Euphrates
Valley by a deep gorge named Gulek-Bogaz or Cilician gates.
This is 3300 feet above the sea-level, and runs about 30 miles
north of Tauru's over the Taurus.

4. A pass 100 miles west of the above leads from Karaman
southwards to Gok-Su valley.

5. A pass further west about 150 miles.

6. A pass connecting Isbarta southwards with Adalia.

This range approaches the sea except where the Pamphylian
and Cilician plains intervene. It is a volcanic region on its in-
terior, the line of volcanoes stretch from Karadagh to Argeaus
and all lie extinct now.

D. Ionian Seaboard. In this region the double series of arcs
extending from Hindu-Kush have met. Through the process of
bending over the arcs are strongly fractured. The folded area
has sunken beneath the water of the Aegeous to be represented
by the islands which stud Archipelago and further west by the
mountains of Dalmation Coast. This region is also strongly
volcanic.

E. Eastern ranges and connecting links. — No hard and fast
line could be drawn to separate Armenia from Anatolia on the
east, but the western extension of the Tauric system forms a
semi-circular arc, hanging as a wall against the Lycaonian Plateau
on whose centre rests the Mighty Argeaus. This wall sweeps
over the banks of Kizil-Irmak, and merges into the Pontic chain

42 MINERAL RESOURCES

by transverse and parallel ridges. The Karabel-Dagh, which runs
from the great bend of Euphrates at Egin to the head streams of
Kizil Irmak, connects the mountain chains of inner arc (Pontic),
to the outer arc (Anti-Taurus and Taurus). This connecting
link separates Armenia from Anatolia, as well it separates Cilicia
from Upper Armenia.

PHYSIOGRAPHY.

A. Armenia.

The country of Armenia takes its place as an integral member
of the system of tablelands, buttressed by mountain ranges which
extend from the Hindu-Kush to the Mediterranean Sea. Most
of the characteristics which are found in either of Persia on the
east or of Anatolia on the west, are prevalent in Armenia to a
greater or lesser degree. The stratified rocks extend across the
whole system. The salt deposits which are spread so widely
over Persia, are not among the least remarkable of the surface
features of Armenia. Considerable depressions of the surface
of the highlands are phenomena common to all three countries
and the same may be said of the volcanoes which are dominant
in Armenian landscapes but are not wholly absent from the con-
tiguous territories on either side.

The idiosyncrasies which distinguish Armenia as a whole from
the other members of the series is, in the first place, the greater
elevation investing her territory with the attributes of a roof
to the adjacent countries, from which the waters gather to be pre-
cipitated in different directions and to find their way not only
to the Black Sea and Caspian but also by almost endless stages
to the Persian Gulf. The prominent part which has been played
by recent volcanic action is another imjjressive phenomenon. Both
these manifestations are explemified in a striking manner by the
surface features of the rectangular area of the more northerly
sphere.

The higher plain levels of this region are situated at an alti-
tude of some 7,000 ft. above the sea. The uplands which give
rise to the Kur in the district of Goleh must come very near to
this level. The parting of the waters of the Kur and Araxes
near the village of Shishtapa, in an open landscape which may be

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 43

compared to rolling downs, lies at about 7,000 ft. while of smaller
sheets of water Lake Topo-ravan, with 6,876 ft., and the Apa-
Gol with 6,706 ft., slightly better this already considerable figure.
Where the plateau falls away to the abysmal canon of the Araxes
its edge is nearly 6,500 ft. high.

The Town of Ardaban stands at a level of 5,840 ft. and Kars
of 5,700 ft. Alexandropol, the principal City, occupies the hol-
low of a vast basin-like plain; yet it is over 5,000 ft, above the
sea. These elevations are much greater than the average even in
Persia though in the frontier province of Azerbaijan and along
the edge of the southern peripheral mountains.

The process of gradual uplift of the region by earth move-
ments has been attended by eruptive action, flooding the country
with volcanic matter, levelling inequalities of the ground and add-
ing to the height. It has been estimated that the volcanic de-
posits laid bare in the ravines of the streams which descend from
the radial Dochus-Punar attain a depth of hundreds of yards.
A similar phenomenon is made manifest in the canon of the
Araxes, a cleft which in the neighborhood of the village of
Armutli, west of Kagisman, has a depth of about 2,000 ft. and
a width on top of at least a mile. There the sedimentary deposits
are overlaid with tuffs and lavas in a belt over 300 yards deep.

The Armenian highlands have been the scene in olden times
of great volcanic activity. The position of the remarkably numer-
ous volcanoes of Armenia is by no means fortituous, that on the
contrary they have invariably arisen along the lines of fracture,
and that the volcanoes which occur at points of intersection are
proportionately larger. The most interesting principal operative
in this country is the series of volcanoes along meridinal lines.
Such groups pursue a course at right angles to the strike of the
rock with the area of the peripheral mountains. In this con-
nection the plateau region occupies the apex of the bend over
the inner arc. Lines of fractures have been thrown out at right
angles to the folding and eruptive agency was fastened upon
these weakened zones of earth's crust. The points of emission
of volcanic matter are in some cases true volcanic, in others
mere pistules or fissures of varying extent.

The tendency to a strong pronounced plateau country is in
Armenia, especially in the southwestern territories, indepedent

44 MINERAL RESOURCES

of volcanic action. It is a plateau, as a whole that may be re-
garded as an area of reltive depression between its northern and
southern border ranges. The depression, caused by subsidence of
blocks of land along the lines of fracture, became filled by lakes
during different Geological Series. The lavas and tuffs of the nu-
merous contemporary volcanoes became interbedded with the lake
deposits, and assisted in levelling the pre-existing inequalities
of the ground. In this way plains were formed varying in size
from the great Mid-Araxes in depression at the foot of the Ararat
to the plains of Alashkert, Pasin, Erzerum, Khinis, Mush, etc.,
down to little fertile plains such as Bashkent, Gandemir, etc.

Sharp peaks precipitous slopes, narrow valleys, and swift
streams and rivers compose the landscape. The basinlike ap-
pearance, the long parapets on the northern and southern edges,
in one case culminating in volcanic peaks of Palandoken and
Eyerli, in the other distinguished by eminence of Bingol. The
waters of the plateau converge together in the shape of two
fans, as they are precipitated from the highest levels towards the
east, burying themselves ever deeper into th volcanic soil.

The surface of the country is composed of limestones with
intrusive serpentines and lacustrine deposits capped by sheets of
the ubiquitous lava. The stratified rocks are prominent, emerg-
ing from the volcanic layers or only capped by a thin sheet of
lava. Dominant among them are the limestones of various geo-
logical periods, when the greater part of the country must have
been covered by a lake of fresh or brackish water. Intrusive
in earlier limestones are found a variety of old igneous rocks,
such as diabase, gabbro, and serpentine. The serpentines com-
bine with the limestones to form rounded hills or downs with
soft outlines. Sometimes a cap of lava has preserved a particular
piece of limetone and the result has been a summit with a point
like that of a needle overtopping adjacent and undulating forms.
Where the old ingenous rocks occur in a zone a sombre land-
scape is forthcoming as, for instance, above the northern shore
of Lake Van, between Akhlat and Adeljivas; or when the highly
marmorized older limestones have the upper hand, there ensues
sterility and glaring light. These later rocks have a fairly wide
extension and compose prominent lines of mountains ; for ex-
ample, they have bestowed upon the plain of Khinis its north-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 45

em boundary.

A rather later series of limestones are placed on the very-
threshold of the Armenian tableland; and they are distributed in
a wide zone over the northern districts of Armenia, extending
all the way from the Merjan-Musur Mountain in the west to
those represented by many a summit of the deeply eroded Chor-
okh region. The block of heights on the north of the Western
Euphrates is composed to a greate extent of such limestones ;
and both in the neighborhood of Kop Pass, and northwards
from the pass of Koshab Punar.

Later still in date, and of almost constant prominence in the
landscape both of the plateau region and of peripheral moun-
tains are the limestones more usually associated with softer fea-
tures, especially when they are interbedded with shales. The
incidence of their im,pressive features at Palandoken line of
height, on the south of Erzerum and Pasin, and where they
whiten the waters of Lake Van in the neighborhood of Adel-
jivas. This pretty town, which lies at the foot of a lofty cliff
is composed exclusively of white chalk. Along the road from
Akhlat deposits are prominent over the area of Central Table-
land, and numerous corals are observed imbedded in rocks.
Limestone emerges on the farther side of the plain of Khinis
to compose the Zernek Mountain, continuing the outline of
Khamur. The almost limitless expanse throi^glh which the
Murad winds between Tatakh and Melazkert reveals most clearly
its essential character as a country of rolling chalk downs be-
neath the covering of a cloak of lava. The southern limit of
that expanse would seem to the eye to be volcanic, niisled by
the precedent of the immense extension of the train of Ararat.
But where the barrier is at length reached it is found to consist
of limestones forming a pedestal for the fabric of Sipan.

A less prominent surface features are the lake deposits crumb-
ling in the hand with masses of fresh water shells. There can
be no doubt that an epoch contemporaneous with the outpour-
ing of lavas a lake or lakes extended from Erzinjan, Erzerum,
and Pasin across the region now occupied by the central table-
land, and through Khinis to the plains of the Murad and Sipan.
The interior of Asia Minor and the tableland of Persia were
covered with lakes at the same date ; but that these were salt in

46 MINERAL RESOURCES

the case of Persia is proved. Saline deserts which disfigure
immense tracts of the soil of Iran prove this. In Armenia
they have been productive of the greatest fertility, their whole-
some sediments having mingled with volcanic matter and be-
come constituent of rich brown loams. It seems likely that the
purple sandstone and conglomerates along the northern shore
of Lake Van are the representatives of similar conditions within
the basin. It may be justifiable to suppose that the waters be-
came gradually more shallow, until they remained only on the
surface of the numerous greater and smaller depressions, which
still bear their imprint to a degree which must be convincing
even to an unpracticed eye. A chain of separate lakes was
formed spread broadcast over the land, and washing the pro-
monotories of the heights. Such lakes appear to have existed
at Alexandropal and in the plain of Erivan over Pasin, the plains
of Erzerum, and that of Erzinjan, in the districts of Khinis,
Alashkert, Bulanik and probably Mush. They were drained
away as a result of the increasing elevation of the land as a
whole ; and, probably, in some cases the process was accelerated
by uplift, causing erosion of the adjacent barriers to be accel-
erated. The lakes which exist at the present day are almost ex-
clusively due to lava filling in the mouths of valleys and forming
dams on an immense scale.

A feature which has occupied a considerable amount of at-
tention is the fluctuation in level of the lakes. The flluctua-
tions may be of temporary and more or less permanent origin.
All evidences point to the fact that such changes are of a tempo-
rary nature and that a period of increase is followed by one
of decline. Such a change may be due to

1. Ordinary climatic conditions such as the rainfall, fall
of snow and subsequent variation in volume of rivers, and in
activity of springs.

2. The economic state of the country and the extent of
irrigated land within the water shed.

3. Opening or closing of subterranean issues.

4. Movements of earth crust.

The most probable explanation is that they are due to cli-
matic conditions which, it is well known, are variously opera-
tive over cycles of years.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 47

The most obvious explanation of the gradual but perman-
ent rise in the norm of lake level, furnished by the cause ; which
may be constantly operative, namely, the increase of sediment
deposited over the bottoms.

B. Anatolia.

The Anatolian rectangle may generally be described as a
plane inclined towards the Black Sea. All the more elevated
land and main ranges are massed in the southern section of
the peninsula, along the Mediterranean seaboard. The north-
ern slopes of these uplands merge imperceptibly in the Central
Plateau, which are thmselves furrowed in every direction by
river valleys gradually broadening out and draining to the Black
Sea. But in the extreme north, where the coast line advances in a
vast convex curve into the sea, independent and almost isolated
masses rise between the Kizil-Irmak and Sakaria basins, skirt-
ing on its northern edge an extensive central plain, whose deeper
parts are still flooded by the remains of an inland sea. The
ranges which follow at some distance the line of the southern
shore, and which are broken into irregular chains and mountain
masses, are mainly disposed in the form of a crescent with
its convex side facing the Mediterranean, and thus correspond-
ing to the northern curve turned towards the Black Sea.

Anatolia must be regarded as a western extension of Ar-
menian highlands, from which it can nowhere be separated
by any hard-and-fast line. Th,e plateau formajtion prevails
throughout the interior of the peninsula forming an extensive
tableland at a mean elevation of from 2,500 to 4,000 feet
above sea level, and stretching north-east and southwest for
a distance of over 200 miles with an average breadth of about
140 miles. Above this tableland rise several loosely connected
mountain ranges, while over its surface are scattered a number
of salt-lakes, morasses and water courses without any visible
out-flow seawards, beside several streams which find their way
mainly northwards to the Aegean. The plateau is skirted south
and north by two broken mountain ranges, which radiate from
the Armenian uplands, Taurus and Anti-Taurus. Both these
mountain ranges are crossed at various points by passes gener-
ally at low elevations and of moderately easy access. Of this

48 MINERAL RESOURCES

the most ■ important is the Geulek-Boghaz, or Cilician Gates,
a deep goi'ge 3,300 feet above sea level, running about 30 miles
north of Taurus over the Taurus, and conceding Anatolia with
North Syria and the Euphrates Valley. About 100 miles west
of these points the Taurus is crossed by a second pass leading
from Karaman southwards to the Gok-Su Valley, and by a
third 150 miles. Still farther west connecting Isbarta south-
wards with Adalia. The chief openings giving access from
the Black Sea through the Anti-Taurus to the Central Plateau
are those leading from Ineboli to Kastamuni and Angora, from
Sinope to Amasia, from Samson to the same place, and from
Trebizond over the Kolat-dagh to Erzerum.

The Anatolian peninsula forms in reality as well as in name
a minature of the whole continent. Both consist mainly of ex-
tensive Central Plateau, with an inland and seaward drainage,
and both are skirted by lofty ranges behind which most of the
streams have their source, which find their way to the coast.
But in Asia Minor the Alluvial plains developed by those rivers
cannot be compared in relative extent with those of the greater
Asia. The escapements of the plateau approach everywhere so
near to the sea that no space is left for great lowland plains
such as those of Siberia and China. There are a few low-
lying and somewhat marshy tracts about the lower course of
the Yeshil-Irmak, Kizil-Irmak, and Sakaria on the Black Sea,
along the banks of the Meander below Smyrna, and about
Adalia and Mersina on the south coast. But with these and a
few other unimportant exceptions the whole peninsula may be
broadly divided into two main natural divisions — the central
plateau and the encircling ranges. This disposition of the sur-
face has largely determned the limits of the 8 states into which
Anatolia is divided for administrative purposes. Angora and
Sivas comprise the greater part of the tableland, Adana, Aidin,
Kastamuni and Trebizond coincide with so many distinct sec-
tions of the coast ranges, while Brussa and Konia alone include
portions both of the plateau and of the seaboard.

The Anatolian plateau rises from west to east, and attains
its greatest altitude, above 7,000 feet near Erzerum. On the
south the plateau is similarly buttressed by the Taurus range,
which in places has an altitude from 7,000 to 10,000 feet.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 49

Except where the Pamphylian ^nd Cilician plains intervene,
the range approaches the sea. Farther east it is separated from
Syria by the gorge of Jihun, and breaks down to the lowlands
of Mesopotamia, in a series of rock terraces seamed by deep
ravines; The western face of the plateau is broken by broad
Valleys, and only in the case of Olympus (7,600 feet) rises
much higher than 2,500.

The most striking features are the great central plain with its
salt lakes; the abence of navigable rivers; Mount Argeous
(13,100 feet) and its volcanic district to the south; the Subter-
ranean flow of streams beneath the Taurus and a number of
hot medicinal springs.

The great plain of Western Anatolia is composed of lacus-
trine deposits. Mount Taurus consists chiefly of limestone,
the Pontic range of scheists and metamorphic rocks. Igeneous
rocks occur in many districts, and some of the minor ranges
are of granite.

The Central plateau consists of nearly horizontal strata while
around the coast flat lying deposits are found extending up into
the mountain regions. The deposits of the Central plateau con-
sists of freshwater marls and limestones. Along the south-
eastern margin, in front of the Taurus, stands a line of volcan-
oes stretching from Karadagh to Aegeaus all lying extinct now.

TECTONIC FEATURES.

A. Armenia.

The central and least interrupted fold of the Armenian plateau
may be regarded as the link between the Alburs of Northern
Persia and the Anti-Taurus of Asia Minor. The Alburs folds
after bending around to the northwest are broken off near Haran
and only rise up again northwest of the great volcano Kara-
bagh. The folds are cut through by the transverse valley of
the Araxes below Ordubad and are continuous with the same
northwest direction through the Karabagh region. The west-
ern Karabagh range is the highest of the folds reaching 12,-
832 feet in granitic Karabagh Mountain. It gradually bends
around to W. N<. W. through Dammry Mountains (11,093 ft.)
and Salvasty Mountain (10,422 ft.) into the Daralagoz district.

50 MINERAL RESOURCES

finally breaking off in the Zynlerly Mountain towards broad
Araxes plain north of Ararat. Here the fold has undergone
fracture and depression and has been concealed, not only by
the lavas of Ararat and Alagoz, but also by the loess and
alluvial deposits of the Araxes. A fragment, however comes
to light in the Oligocene rather than in the Kegeljin Mountain
near Kulp'i. Then it forms Shatin Mountain the "spine of
Armenia," with a dioritic axis and it bends round to a W. by S.
direction dividing Pasin from Alashkert and Tekman. After
passing through Palandoken (10,694 ft.) where it forms the
southern boundary of the Erzerum plain, the line of height
appears to die out in the Karakaya Mountain, and its place
is taken on the south by the Zerdeji and Mirian mountains;
thence the line crosses the Frat, to attain greater heights in the
Melpurt and Keshish Mountains. Here it is interupted by
the Erzinjan depression but it soon rises higher in Muzur Moun-
tain. It is again traversed by the Frat above Egin for the third
time and is con tinued to the southwest into the Anti-Taurus.

The Central Karabagh line forms part of the same Alburs-r
Anti-Taurus series. It is indicated first of all by the Ardebel
depression, traversed by the S. E. N. W. course of the Kara-Su,
and flanked on the west by the great volcano Salavan. Th?
line is continued to the N. W. through the Cretaceous Kara-
bagh. Surmounted by the tracytic Gaishtasar and Saigrama
Mountains. Crossing the Araxes, its S. E. N. W. axis can be
traced through the relative depression of central Karabagh
plateau — a depression which has been more than filled up by
the lavas and tuffs of numerous volcanoes arranged in series-
along its axis. The most important of these peaks are the
Kehal Mountain, Ishakly, Kizil Bogas, Mukhortolian, Galingaya
and Syrer-syrchally, all of which rise to heights 10,000 — 12,000
feet. The central Karabagh depression is then continued through
Lake Gokcha into the Dachichak heights, and this line finally
disappears beneath the northern lava-flows of Alagoz.

Starting once more from the Caspian, we find a series of S.
E. — N. W. folds adjacent to the Alburs folds and rising up
to form the Talish ranges. They are on the same line of strike
as the folds which have been broken off, on the east coast of
the Caspian, between Ashref and Asterbad.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

SI

DATA TAKEN FROM F. E. OsWALD :—

Colored Geological Map of Armenia.

52 MINERAL RESOURCES

It is evident that this interruption in their continuity is due
to the depression of the area now occupied by the South Caspian.
The Talish ranges disappear beneath the transverse valley of
the Araxes and rise up again to form the east Karabagh ranges,
among which Shasha lies centrally situated. They are con-
tinuous with the same N. W. direction as the Gokcha ranges,
or so called Little Caucasus, occupying the space between Lake
Gokcha and the Valley of Lower Kur. The richest ores of
Russian Transcaucasian are found in these rugged Eastern
Border ranges of Armenia. At the 4Sth meridian the folds
begin to bend round to the west and consists of three main
lines. Pambak, Bezobdal and Lialvar, which disappear com-
pletely beneath the volcanic plateau of Russian Armenia, with
the exception of small outlier of Cretceous rocks near Medo-
tappa Lake.

The Aglagan-Bezobdal fold already shows indication of bend-
ing around to W. by S. Although now completely hidden by
vast accumulations of lava and tuff the continuation of these
folds may perhaps be indicated by the W. S. W. direction of a
part of the Kars-Chai Valley below Kars, and by the same di-
rection of the volcano. Watershed, between the Lakes of Chaldir
and Khozapian.

On the west side of the volcanic plateau this series of fold re-
appears to view, forming a N. E. — S. W. zone through Olti
depression. They are still more closely indicated further to the
southwest by the Cretaceous heights lying between the longi-
tudinal valleys of the Chorokh — and further west by the syn-
clinal area of the Varzahan plain and the Kelkid Valley. The
chief line of these folds is marked by the heights of Akhbaba,
Khoshabpunar, Jejen, Kop, Otluk, Sipikar and Chardaklu — a
line which clearly defines the northern edge of the Frat basin,
and which together with the opposite Muzar Mountain line of
heights passes over into the Anti-Tauric system.

A still more northerly series of folds, the Thrialetic Imare-
tian Mountains, or Northern Border-ranges of Armenia is separ-
ated from the Lialvar line of folds by a hard, resisting block,
a mass of gneiss, ancient schists and Palaeozic rocks. Among
these folds four main lines may be divided:

I. Bielyiklinch to Yaglaga Mountain.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 53

2. Manglis to Tiflis.

3. Arjevan through Digorn to Lilo. This fold bends around
to the W. S. W. of the Arjevan Mountain, through Karajakaya
Sansislo (9351 ft.) and Oshara Mountain (8551 ft.) to cross
the Kur Valley just above Akhaltsykh, it then disappears be-
neath the volcanic plateau of Karga Punar, Dokhus Punar and
the Arzian Mountain. At the base of deep canyons of the Pos-
khov River the Cretaceous rocks of this fold are disclosed.

West of the Azian Mountain it is seen to reappear, bounding
the longitudinal valley of the Imerkhevi River and it is con-
tinued to the S. W. between Artvin and Ardanush, into the
Dedime Mountain (10,558 ft.) Thence it forms the inner line
of the Chorokh and passes through the Vavuk Mountain to
bound the Kelkid River on the right.

4. The line marked by Thrialetic-Imeritian Range through the
Tortizi Mountain, across the Kur below Borjom, thence it is
surmounted by the peaks of Salgalotto (8,288 ft.), Kageba,
Nepiskaro, Gatewaria and Taginami. At this point it came
over to the S. W. and after crossing the Chorokh just below
the Ajaris confluence this lines proceeds along the coast behind
Khora and Arkhava. It appear likely that the Karchkal Moun-
tain (11,248 ft.) and parts of the Pontic Range have acted as
a "horst" around which the folds have been curved and bent.

On the other hand the extension of this fold from Mitskhet
eastward appears to lie through Mamkodi. A remnant of this
fold may be seen in the Cretaceous outlier with S. E. strike which
liesS. of Segnak, but this is an exception. It is concealed be-
neath Sarmartian deposits up to the 48th meridian, where it is
indicated by the Eocene foothills of the Caucasus and it finally
vanished beneath the Caspian.

Between the Anti-Tauruc and Tauric series of folds the Ar-
menian plateau is only traversed by minor folds, chiefly affect-
ing Lower Miocene limestone, e. g., Shurian Mountain, the Satah
Mountain between Lakes Van and Urmi. All these folds show
a general agreement wiith the Anti-Tauric series but their con-
tinuity is frequently broken by further scarps and concealed
either by the ejectamenta of volcanoes or by recent richer lakes
deposits.

The Tauric folds form a S. W. — N. E. series in zone between

54 MINERAL RESOURCES

Malatia and Samasat and extend to the N. E. embracing the Palu.
Here, however, they appear to meet a "horst." A southerly Hne
of folding bends round this horst towards Sert. A still more
southerly member of the Tauric series lies between Samsat and
Urfa with a W S. W. EN. E. strike it disappears beneath the
basalt of the Karaja Mountain and rises again in Mardin hills,
running nearly due to east. This line of folding crosses the
Tigris above Jesireh and gradually bends round to the E. S. E.
through Jadi Mountain and bends to Shernak Mountain, to pass
into the Zagros Mountain, with a constant S. E. direction.

In Armenia the chief eras of mountain folding seem to have
occurred in the Lower Permian, Antitithonian and Post-Oligo-
cene priods, and in all of these the resultant pressure came from
the south, i. e., from the Arabian tableland. Th northern limit
to all this mountain folding in Armenia was formed by the great
granitic "horst" of the Meschic Mountains. The Caucasus in
this time was represented by an eliptical island, lying to the
north of this resisting mass, and was only sligtly affected by
the force from the south. But in the Post-Miocene era of moun-
tain making to which the Caucasus owes its present great de-
velopment, the force produced from the N. E. and by this time
the sediments of Armenia has lost their plasticity and could not
undergo any further folding. This hard, unyielding area now be-
came fractured mountain blocks, most of which show parallelism
to the Caucasus and are as much an expression of longitudinal
stresses in the earth crust as the folds of the Caucasus itself.

The lines of fracture in Armenia which are due to the Post-
Miocene mountain making can be divided into three classes.

1. Fracture parallel to the Caucasus, N. W. S. E. They have
given rise to the depression of the Lower Kur from Gori to
the Caspian and Kokcha-Karabagh-Savalan zone. The Kars-
Ararat- Nakhichevan zone, the Alashkert zone, the Erzerum-
Aladagh-Sahend zone, the Khinis-Melaskert zone, the Gum-gum-
Liz zone, the Erzingan-Lake \^an zone and the Diarbekr zone.

2. Two fractures, almost meridianal (N. by W. to S. by E.)
lying on either side of the Meschic "horst" and in all probabil-
ity directly due to its resistance. The western line runs from
Elburz, through the Arzian and Sohanli series of volcanoes to
Kuseh Mountain, and thence to Sipan; the eastern line extends

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 55

from Kashet through Alagoz to Ararat and along the Turko-
Persian frontier to RoWianduz.

3. A fracture crossing the Armenian Mountain folds at their
concave bend, running from Karadagh through the high vol-
canoes of Armenia have arisen along this line, especially where
it intersects other lines of fracture. This line may be traced
southwrds into the great rift of the Jordan Valley, the Red Sea
and through East Africa as far as the rift Lakes Tanganyka and
Nyassa. Perhaps another line may also be traced radiating from
the Karaja Mountain through the volcanic Bingol Mountain and
Palandoken to Erzerum and Devehboyum.

B. Anatolia.

Naumann distinguishes three great folded arcs and a part of
a fourth in determining the trend lines of the structure of
Anatolia. —

1. The East Pontic Arc: it borders, in the northeast, the shore
of the Black Sea, extending from the east towards Sinope.
Abich justifies the separation of East Pontic Arc by the south-
west trend of the ranges, on the left side of the Chorokh.

2. The West Pontic Arc: this is joined by the first, the
southwestern parts of which (Phrygian zone) approach the in-
ner side of the third arc. Naumann mentions a fold at Angora
overthrown to the east-southeast, and towards Polatly, further
westwards, there is horizontal tableland. For the stretch of the
country, more than 100 Km. long, which extends from Heraclea
to beyond Amasra, and is distinguished by tiie presence of
coal measures, the whole district exhibits the character of a
faulted-down than of a folded country. The convincing testi-
mony to the existence of a West Pontic Arc is afforded by the
steeply turned stratified series in the valley of the Sakaria, ex-
tending from Balabon upwards, past the Lefke and Vizirkhan.

3. Tauric Arc: this surrounds the Lyaonian plain, Cyprus
forms part of it; towards the west it joins in syntaxis parts of
a fourth arc. According to Naumann, an inner zone of the
Tauric folds, coming from the northeast, runs within the bend
of the Halys with a southwest direction towards the northeast
of the Lyaonian depression, and breaks off against the border.
Near Kaisarieh, east' of this region, rises the mighty Argeaus,

56 MINERAL RESOURCES .

and here begins the zone of volcanoes which border the inner
side of the Tauric Arc in a regular semi-circle. The problem
of the tructure of this range is not yet solved. Generally speak-
ing, the rocks, in accordaiice with the outer form of the chains,
strike to the northeast, parallel with the Vulcan range on the
one side and the Amanus on the other ; the Mediterranean beds
of Tertiary age are deposited against a range" folded in this
direction.

4. Eagian Arc: the part of the fourth, which with the third
arc forms re-entrant angles. The structure of the west coast
of Anatolia is as follows :

a. From Crete an arc runs to the northeast through Kasos to
Rhodes, where it meets a shorter segments coming from a north-
west direction.

b. The volcanic arc extends from Santorin into Nisyros.

c. In the whole of the southwestern part of the continent a
northwest strike prevails as far as the coast of Caria and on-
wards to Samos : this is the western wing of the Tauric arc,
which encloses the Lyaonian plain.

d. Between Smyrna and Chios a north to north-northeast
strike appears and is maintained through the Spalmatori islands
and Mitilini to the plain of Troy.

e. The western limit of the Tauric Arc can only be followed
with tolerable certainty as far as Samos. It is not sure that
the ranges directed to the north and northeast should be in-
cluded with it.

A syntaxis exists in the proximity of the west coast of Anatolia.

A northeast to east-north strike prevails on the European
mainland (Tekir-Dagh, Kuru-Dagh) and as far as Samothrace,
and perhaps also in the Carboniferous land of Balia-Maden. In
the south this direction is reprsented by the volcanic line to
Nisyros, and further by the line passing through Crete and
Kasos to Rhodes, and the lofty mountains of souther Lycia.
These regions are included among the eastern ends of the ranges
of the Dinaric Arc.

A north and south to a north-northeast strike is met on with
the southern border of the plain of Troy, in Mitilini, Chios,
the Spalmatori islands, the peninsula of Karaburun, and as far

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 57

as Smyrna. These areas probably answer in part to the Dinaric
Arc and in part to the region of Syntaxis.

A northwest strike makes its appearance in the valley of the
Sakaria in the neighborhood of the Olympus of Brdussa, then
in the southwest of Anatolia as far as Samos, thence to the
coast of Caria and to a restricted part of RJiodes. These' tracts
are the western ends of the Tauric Arcs.

The tectonic feature of Anatolia is, unfortunately, not very
w'ell known, and also we do not know very much about the
extension and the location occupied by the Tertiary folded
zone. It is a fact that the masses are, during Tertiary, removed
by vertical comipartment, and have been -dislocated after the
Eagean depression forming a real folding. Folding predomin-
ates in the northeastern part of the peninsula, along the Pontic
series, in the chains of Kos, Cilician Taurus, etc.

Anatolia, as a whole, represents one part of the recently
folded crust forming a natural link between the European Din-
aridfs — Balkans and the Asiatic folds of Iran. It is buttressed
by the primitive ma.ss of Arabia on the south, as Himalayas by
the India. But, in some intervals of Tertiary folded mass, some
vast regions are escaped this movements. Some of them are
only subjected to vertical displacement in the fashion of Euro-
pean Hercynian Horsts. Upon this large space is established a
tabular regime which could, very likely, be compared with the
Pre-Balkanic plateau or with the Caucasus.

The Eocene is often laid horizontal or is only depressed having
been inclined along the fault lines. Occasionally the Cretaceous
also look tabular. The necessary informations are lacking to con-
firm whether they are primary or secondary movements. They
are broken only before the Cretaceous or Eocene. In compari-
son with European chains they generally look like the primary
foldings become insensible in the Tertiary.

Between the two folded chains, one bordering the Black Sea
coast, and the other Mediterranean and Cilicia, we notice a
tabular compartment, vertically moved, and interpolated same
way as Tibet according to Naumann.

On the north, along the Black Sea coast, in Pontus and east
Paphalgonia, there is a primary zone folded in Tertiary. This
extending east-west constitutes' the Pontic chain. This chain is

58 MINERAL RESOURCES

notably represented by the Cretaceous limestones and flysch,
with a great serpentine manifestation. The line which connects
this to European chain is very imaginary. According to Suess
it is the incurred succession of the Eagean fold. Further up
to the west of the course of Halys the grounds look very much
transformed, while the recently folded regions look composed
of horizontal plateau where primary important masses are pre-
dominating.

Naumann shows that the region situated on the south of
Bithynia and Paphlagonia, between Adabazar and Kastamuni,
represent the Eocene and probably Cretaceous in a horizontal
strata laid upon the Jarassic. This is strongly folded after-
wards. Along the line leading from Scutari to Angora near
leni-Chair, in the gorge of Sakaria, between the Biljik and
Lefke. Naumann also shows, in wide extension, the horizontal
Eocene recovering the redressed beds, so that all this compart-
ment is at least laid horizontal since the Cretaceous during a
period when the orogenic efforts attained to their maximum.

The retrogression (Schaarung) of Anatolia, which is sup-
posed toward Sinope, to bind the northeast branches of the
west to northwest is certain. The same degree of uncertainty
exists in the region of western Anatolia where strongly miner-
alized.

But in all cases the Tertiary dislocations are abounding in
this group. The eruptive manifestations are very frequent there,
especially along the depressed zone as the basin of evaporation
without any outlet from Lycaonia and Cappadocea. The pace
of the metallic minerals contributes to accentuation in the most
part of Anatolia, the one which is called Character of Mediter-
ranean.

Coniling to the south, the second zone along the Cilicia,
Mediterranean and the Gulf of Alexandretta, is also notably
folded like the Pontic chain on the north. The most northern
branches of this chain resembles the one which manifests itself
in the island of Kos and Rhodes, being persued from the south-
east to the last axis of folding, passing through the Cyprus and
Alma-Dagh. But it there interpolates the tabular zone in a
condition which so far has not been defined. There are still
other points where analogous phenomena is observable in dif-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 59

ferent geological periods. Bukowski has shown in Caria, near
Davas, Lower Miocene laid horizontal upon the folded Oligo-
cene, while little further the Pliocene same way, has taken
part in the posthiimes movements which is continued up to
today.

Same way, the tabular system predominates in the regions com^
prised between Anti-Taurus and Armenian Taurus, effecting
here the Cretaceous. Continuing these points, the folds soon
stop, juxtaposing the tabular systejm dn folded zones, with
probable drifts notably along the Anti-Taurus.

GEOLOGY.

In general, Armenia geologically consists of Archaic rocks
upon w'hich are superimposed Palaeozoic and towards the south
later sedimentary rocks, the last having been pierced by vol-
canic outbursts that extend southwest to Lake Van. Dominant
among stratified rocks are limestones of various geological pe-
riods from Cretaceous and probably earlier to Plieocene.

The central plateau is especially covered or surrounded by
such a thick or high m;ass of recent sediments and lavas that
Mesozoic and earlier rocks seldom come to the surface. The
Jurassic is recorded only from the eastern border range and
from the region surrounding the Lake Van. Lacustrine de-
posits are also prominent geological features in Pliocene time
contemporaneous with the outpouring of lavas in Central Ar-
mania. Strongly folded metamorphic rocks as marbles, mica
and crystalline schists, schistose gneiss, slates and marl, etc.,
occur abundantly in Armania, especially in the Tauric range
among the oldest rocks.

PRE-DEVONIC. Strongly folded schistose gneiss and other
crystalUnt schists are the oldest rocks of Armenia. They have,
as far as present observations indicate, a SW-NE strike. They
form obstructive masses which offered strong opposition to
later folding. The Armenian Taurus is the most important of
these masses. It consists of layers of mica, quartzite and gneiss
with which often serpentine (South coast of Lake Van), horn-
bende schist and finally granite (Vanik and Keser Valley) or
diorite (Mikus and Shirvan) are associated. This slaty mass

6o MINERAL RESOURCES

extends from Rovandus westward to the Ousounyalia (north
of Albistan) where they are overlain by the Devonian. The
same conditions appear in the most eastern part of Taurus. The
great amount of interbedding of the slate and folded marble is
typically seen at Tadvan on Lake Van in a stretch of only lOO ft.

Because of the rapid weathering of the mica schist to brown
sand the summits of the Taurus Mountains consist of marble;
while the mica schist, which lies above this, comes to light on
the slopes, closed with a thick covering of sand.

The greatest height in this zone of metamorphism is reached
by the Jelu Mountain. It is made up of slate, dolomitic lime-
stone and porphyrites.

A region of the same tectonic importance, though not so well
exposed, is the Meschic Mountains (Zirula dome) in the ex-
treme norh consising of granite, gneiss and crystalline schist.
The granite or granulite here is often penetarted by melaphyrs,
diabases and porphyries. Granite gneisses, mica schists, and
chlorite-schist occur in the upper Chram Valley, and in the
Somkatian Mountains, as well as at other points in the northern
border ranges.

Small occurrences of schists and gneisses occur here and
there in the eastern border ranges, for example, clay and slate
and sugar-grained marble (covered by Tourainian chlorite
schists, mica schists and quartzites with white marbles, serpen-
tines and schistose gneiss in the Pambak ranges and in the
Darachichek Mountains ) . The chlorite and hornblende schists in
Arpatal (Daralagoz), and in the upper Ochchital (West Kara-,
bagh) Valley appear again on the south side of the axis in
Karabagh. On the bottom of some of the deep valleys of the
north and east Karabagh old gneiss and feldspar porphyries
under Jurassic rocks come to the surface.

Schistose rocks are reported from the Pontic region of the
northern border ranges but their exact age has not yet been
determined. Clay slates with SW-NE strike have been described
from the lower Chorokh Valley at Artvin and from the neigh-
boring Ardanush valley. They are overlain by the Lower Cre-
tacic. A zone of rocks appear on the inner border of the
Pontic Range (for example, of the Kharchkar Mountain,) and in
the basin of Olti (Kanli and Akdagh Mountains at Id.)

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 6i

Occasionally the metamorphic series is seen in the| inner
region of the Armenian highland as at Arabkir (mica schists,
sometimes graphitic). It extended through Dersim and appears
above the graphitic mica schists) as far as the region north of
Khinis, in the Shatin Mountain and in the Kisilja Mountain
east of Lake Van.

DEVONIAN. Middle and Upper Devonic beds are reported
from the Araxes Basin (south of Ararat) and from the Valley
of its tributary, Arpa (Daralagoz), where they overlie red mica
schist, sandstones and conglomerates. They extend southward
into the Urmi Basin and eastward into the Karabagh, but are
tipt known in the region between Ararat on the one side and
their appearance in the Antitaurus on the other side. In the
Araxes Basin they strike mostly NW-SE; sometimes (Davalu,
Degma, Danga, Gyneshik) SW-NE; this can probably be at-
tributed to posthumus influences because of the strike of the un-
derlying slates. The Armenian-Devonian accords with that of
Antitaurus and Persia and may be, owing to this similarity,
divided according to the following general scheme :
Upper Devonian — •

Zona of Spirifer verneu'li. Red, ithick bed of limestone
with marly interlayers and clay slates. Fossils : Spirifer
archiaci, Spirifer tenticulimi, Rhynchonella cuhoides, Acer-
vularia pentagona.
Lower Devonian —

(3). Coral limestone, with very many Cyathophyllmn quadri-
geminum.

(2). Brachiopod limestone, with Spirifer inflatus, Spirifer
mediotextus, Rhynchonella letiensis, Chonetes.

( I ) . Calceola tuff, marly limestone with calceola sandstone,
Cyathopyllum vermiculare , C. praecursor, caesopitoswm, Cysti-
phyllum vesiculosum, Favosites goldfussi, Heliolites porosus,
Stromatopora concentrica, Atrypa reticularis, Merista plebeja.

CARBONIFEROUS. The limestones of the Carbonic age He
conformably above the Devonic from which they are distin-
guished simply by a general widespread, slight bituminous content,
and the occasional appearance of Alum. The Carbonic is found
in the same region as the Devonic, but stretches beyond in its
higher layers ; for example, on the south of the Araxes and on

62

MINERAL RESOURCES

DATA TAKEN FROM F. E, OsWALD :

Colored Geological Map of Artnenia.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 63

the islands and the coasts of the Lake Urmi. A break in the
disposition has occurred in Armenia in the second half of the
Upper Carboniferous.

The general sequence of beds of the Carbonic is as follows:
Upper Carbonic —

Moskaus tuff. Fusulina zone, dark gray, often dolomitic lime
with Fusulinella sphaeroida, F. lenticularis, £ndothyra Bryozoan,
lime algae, etc.
Lower Carbonic —

Zone of Products gigantes: coarse banded, bituminous coral-
line limestone with Cystiphyllum inurchisoni, Lithostrotion mar-
tini, Lonsdaleia florifornds, Productiis gigantus, Spirifer striatus,
Spririgera planosulcata.

Zone of Spirifer, Marly limestone and shale.

(i). Crinoid limestone, with Platycrynus, Dalmanella Michel-
ini, Chonetes hardrensis.

(2). Brachiopod layers with Productus perlongus, Athyris
amhigua, Spirifer tenticulum.

PERMO-TRIASSIC. The Permo-Triassic limestones of Julfa
on the Araxes and the neighboring Kasanyaila district were dis-
posed in a bay of that sea which extended toward the Indian
salt range. In contrast to the zone of Palaeozoic folds, in the
Central Araxes district in, which eruptives of the same age are
lacking, they show simply flextures with steep N. E. faults,
and numerous bed veins of diabase and quartz porphyry. Car-
bonic, Permic and Triassic are comformable and folded together.
In other places the Triassic of Armenia are not yet known.
Possibly dolomite of the Jelu Mountain (in the Zab Basin)
belongs to this formation analogous with the Triassic dolomites,
of the western Caucasus. Rhetic with plant remains exist only
on the eastern border of Armenia, namely, in the Alburz chain
Lower Triassic —

Quartzite of Negram, apparently with interbedding of Wellen-
limestone with Werfen fossils.
Upper Permian. Upper Zechstein —

Limestones with the appearance of Wellen-limestone, and
containing Chideru fossils.
Upper Permian. Lower Zechstein —

Julfa limestones with a rich fauna, especially of Ceratitidae

64 MINERAL RESOURCES

and Brachiopods. Stage of Oteceras Julfense.

JURASSIC. LIAS. Rocks of the Lias have not yet been
found in Armenia. But in the Urmi basin, beyond the boundary
of Armeniais found the Toarcian. Here the association of cen-
tral European fossil form is explained by advocating a connec-
tion, thorugh Roumania and Transylvania, with the Hungarian
Sea.

The Liassic limestone of Azerbaijan indicates a more open
sea than the fine-grained shaly, littoral facies of the Central
Caucasus. Probably they were formerly continuous with the
Palaeozoic sediments of Kessiktash at Angora in Asia Minor.
This connecting sediment has either been denuded or still await-
ing discovery. Perhaps in the Dersim distdict. The coal of
Gernavig and Kamsakendi (north of Lake Urmi) is probably
Liassic, but accessible knowledge seems to be against this idea.

DOGGER. BAjAOiAN TUFF. During the Bajocian time
and several of the following epochs powerful volcanism existed
in the neighborhood of the present eastern border range. The
massive, in part submarine, outbreaks were inimical to animal
life, so that only small remains occur in the seams of impure
limestone which were interbedded in the great deposits of tuffs,
sandstones and lava flows.

MALM. CALLOViAX. The Macrocephallus and Anceps-
zones are reported on the east coast of Lake Urmi, as well
as in the eastern border range at Kabagtepe in the Shamshortal
Valley, northwest from Elizabetpol. At the last named locality
the facies indicate a sediment of great land.

In Armenia it is certain that neither Oxfordian nor Sequan-
ian are known. The expressed volcanic disturbances which are
noticed in the Sequanian of Central Caucasus were noticeably
forerunners of the great Kimmeridgian faulting by which the
Caucasus and the large part of Armenia was raised above the
sea. These dislocations were accompanied by the outbreaks of
most of the disbases and Melaphyrs of Armenia.

KIMMERIDGIAN is known from the Karabagh district. It
shows the sponge and coral facies with those of the Natthein
limestone. At its base lies conglomerate, which suggests a
trangression in Middle Kimmeridgian time.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 65

TITHONIAN is known in the West Karabagh, namely, in
the Kiaki Mountain and Trapassar Mountain (south of Tatev).
In the coral limestones, the Stylina decemradiata, Calamorphyl-
lia pseudo stylina, etc., fossils are found.

LOWER CRETACEOUS, lower neocomian (Valanginian
has not yet been definitely recorded from the Armenian area,
although it will probably be found to occur in the Karabagh
region. According to Abich Neocomian strata are probably pres-
ent on the Trapassar Mountain overlying Tithonian limestone.

The lower beds of the Valanginian are, however, well devel-
oped on the northern borders of Armenia in the Zirula dome
(Meschic Mountains. Here in the S. W. part of the synclinal
trough (SE of Kvirila) it consists of marls and marly limestones
with Terebratula pseudojurensis, Waldheimia moutoniana, Py-
gone diphyoides, Chama, Strombus, etc.

MIDDLE NEOCOMIAN OR HAUTERIVIAN has a wide
distribution on the northeastern, and northwestern borders of
Armenia.

In the north, it is well developed in the Zirula dome in the
marly sandstones and limestones, containing Rhynchonella de-
pressa, Exogyra coidoni, Nautilus pseudoelegans, etc., fossils.

In the east Karabagh is found the Neocomian marls and
Exogyra and Lima. Farther south near Araxes is establish-
ed the presence of Hauterivian beds. Farther south, in Azer-
baijan, is found Hauterivian Amnionites at Gushaish, in the hills
on the east of Lake Urmi. A fragment of a large Ammonite
was also found in the massive limestone of a few miles below
Muradkhan, on Kharshut River.

THE UPPER NEOCOMIAN (barremian) is present in
Armenia only in its Urgonian facies, similar to that of Jura.
On the northern borders of Armenia — in the Zirula donte — the
Urgonian beds show evidence of a marked transgression, and of
closer proximity to land than the very similar deposits in the
west Karabagh.

Near Marelision the southern slope of the Zirula dome Rei-
quienia limestones and marls rest to the basal conglomerates
and breccias derived from the underlying granite, and to the
north of Molita they rest discordantly on Upper Jurassic clays'
sandstones and tuflfs. Urgonian is also well developed in the west

66 MINERAL RESOURCES

Karabagh, but has not been recorded from any intermedate
district. The limestone was noticed on the Trapassar Mountain
containing characteristic Urgonian fossil (Corals, Requienia am-
monia, Nerinea).

APTIAN. Very little is known as yet regarding the presence
of this formation in Armenia except on its northern borders — on
the Zirula dome and the south slope of the Central Caucasus.
On the Zirula dome marls, slightly glauconitic, contain Tere-
bratula sella, Thetis major, etc., fossils.

The presence of Aptian in the eastern Border Ranges of
Armenia is established by Exogyra aquila.

UPPER CREACEOUS. albian is well developed on
the northern borders of Armenia in the same localities as the
Aptian, with which, indeed, it is in continuity. The Albian both
on Zirula dome and on the southern slope of the Caucasus, repre-
sented by the sandy marls with Discoides subuculus, glauconitic
sandstones with Desmoceras bendanti, marly sandstone with
Crustacea and Phylloceras vcUcdoe.

CENOMANIAN undoubtedly occurs on the south side of the
Frat, almost due to south of this locality. The Cenomanian
limestone rises up to form the Hach Mountain — the E. W. chain
which divides the districts of Terjan and Kighi. On Zirula
dome Cenomanian is well developed, consisting of slightly glau-
conitic sandstones and Disoidea subuculus, Haploceras djumense,
etc.

TURONIAN is particularly well developed in the southern,
eastern and western Karabagh district, especially in Alikulikent,
in the gorge of the Bergushet River, where nearly the entire
Cretaceous is laid bare. Here is recorded a considerable thick-
dess pf Turonian strata, inuch dislocated, dipping northwards
and traversed by dikes of amygdaloidal dolerite. Plagioptychus
agitilloni and large Radiolites and Acteonella fossils are much
dominant. The only indication of Turonian in the Pantic re-
gion occurs near the confluence of Ardanush River with the
lower Chorokh; a very thick series of limestones crystalline in
places, overlying Cenomanian and underlying Senonian strata.

SENONIAN of Armenia is well developed in Karabagh re-
gion. In the west Karabagh at Alikulikent in the Bergushet Val-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA tj

ley, the Senonian conformably overlies the Turonian; it shows a
northerly dip, and is strongly dislocated and traversed by dikes
of amygdaloidal dolerite. The lower part cnosists of thick beds
of white fossils, chalky limestone containing Echinocorys ovata,
Inoceraimis cnvieri. Ammonites, etc. In the East Karabagh the
Senonian is extensively developed in the form of fissile litho-
graphic limestones. Generally the Senonian formation in Kara-
bagh continued beneath the great depression of Kur, 'rising up
again on the opposite side in the Caucasus. It is continued
also to N. \\'. through the Gokcha Range. Near Elizabetpol
the only recorded Senonian fossils are Foraminifera. Senonian
limestones reach their greatest height in the region between the
Debeda, Pambak and Akstafa Rivers.

To west and north the littoral fades predominate, especially
in the lower part of the formation.

EOCENE. LOWER EOCENE. In the north of Armenia
and in the Caucasus the Lower Eocene consists of a thick series
of dark, argillaceous fissile sandstones and marls, harder beds
of variegated shales and laminated limestones and flint, and inter-
calated in the series but the only fossils are obscure impressions
of thick stalked Fucoids (Chondrites. Tuffs and volcanic brec-
cias frequently occur, together with contemporary diabases,
andesites, dacites, and trachytes. They are well developed in
the Akhalzik basin, near Borjom and Mikhailov.

The Lower Eocene is ,, evidently represented along the south-
ern base of the Taurus. At Arghana the Nummulitic Lime-
stone is found to overlie carbonaceous marls ; beneath these there
occur brecciated and quartzose sandstones alternating with
marls. Again between Ali Mountain and Arghana-Su intrusive
masses of dialage rock have altered the carbonaceous beds into
dark, sheared non-bituminous stone coal, with vitreous fracture.
In all localities of Akhalzik Basin the fossiliferous Eocene beds
are overlain by the Flysch facies of Upper Eocene, and this in
turn by Oligocene. This facies is represented by marly calcar-
eous beds, much laminated, with fucoidal remains, fish scales
and impressions and teeth of Lanuna clegans, Otodus, Melatta
sardinntcs, etc.

MIDDLE. AND UPPER EOCENE. The middle and Upper Eo-
cene of Lower Rion and Kvirila Basin show the same facies

68 MINERAL RESOURCES

as that of the Akhalzik Basin. The NummuHte facies rathei
more marked here consists of clays, fissile marls and fossillifer-
ous calcareous beds with OrbitoUtes discus, Serpula, Terebratula,
etc. These fossils indicate the presence of both the Kressenberg
and Priabona horizons. Numulitic beds appear in the upper
valley of Pambak River, in the upper region of the Akstafa
and Zanga rivers. The same horizon occurs in the Duchu and
Terter Valleys, and the two areas were evidently in complete
continuity through N. W. — E. E. Eocene zone, which borders
Lake Gokcha on the N. and E. The finest section of Nummulitic
beds in the Mid-Araxes region is near the monastery of Kar-
mirvank, at the entry of the gorge leading to Julfa. Nummulitic
limestone and fine grained sandstone are extensively developed
in the Taurus Mountains, the southern border range of Armenia,
especially in the plain of Apaud between Kharput and Keban
Maden, containing Nuinmulites panwndi, N. laeigatus, N. in-
termedius. The higher parts of Taurus, between Kharput and
Arghana consists of Calcareous strata abounding in Nummulites,
overlying Cretaceous beds.

OLIGOCENE. LOWER oligocene beds occur in the Pontic
region between the Karchkal Mountains and the Ardahan
plateau. Here, above Satlel, in the gorge of the Samjel-robat
River, a soft yellow, very compact, crystalline limestone with
Harpacto-carcinuf, Certihium, Turbo, Conus, etc., and corals
and spines of Cidaris. The only remaining instance of Oligocene
in Armenia is recorded in the Araxes gorge, a few versts above
Julfa, half way between Julfa and Darosham. Here the hori-
zontal Nummulitic limestone (overlapping permo Triassic) are
conformably overlain by Oligocene, consisting of a very thick
bed of an ash gray, calcareous sandstone, passing upwards into
brown sandstones overlain by Sar,matian sandstones and con-
glomerates. Intercalated sandstone then occur between rather
compact, calcareous beds, enclosing a number of shells (Gastro-
pod) which are all changed into coarse-graine'd calcite, and diffi-
cult to determine owing to their fragmentary and altered con-
dition. Ostrea, Venus, and Natica glaucina are characteristic
fossils.

MIOCENE. LOWER MIOCENE is particularly well developed in
the basin of Lake Urmi. The fossil collected on Ishakdaghi,

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 69

Koyundaghi and the Shahi peninsula indicate:

( 1 ) LOWER TDRTONiAN compact, rather porous limestone oc-
casionally like travertine with Alectryonia virlet, Thamnaroea
polymorpha, Latirus crispus.

(2) UPPER HELVETIAN, light yellow or white limestone
and greenish-gray, coarse-grained, molassic-sandstone more or
less compact, with sphathic portions, capable or high polish, some-
times partially translucent with Polystomella quartrepunctata,
Orbicella defrancei, Ccriopora anomalis, Spondylus bifrons, Cly-
peaster gnnteri, etc.

(3). LOWER HELVETIAN Concretionary brownish-yellow lime-
stone, breaks in great slabs, with Pector convexocostatus.

(4) Fragmental deposits, varying in thickness derived from

(5) Carbonaceous limestone.

A great part of the mountainous country between Khoi and
Ararat seems to consist of Micocene limestone, particularly the
region E. S. of Bayazid in the Gedargan Mountain, and the
Valleys of Maku, Tanali and Zangimar. The Miocene area has
been considerably extended in Turkish Armenia. It is particu-
larly well exposed in the cliffs of Lake Van.

In the upper part of the Frat Valley is described the highly
fossiliferous Micocene limestone of Kardarich, a few miles above
Ashkala. Here the Erzerum plain is closed in on the west by
a wall of limestone through which the river has cut a sharp
ravine.

UPPER MIOCENE, sarmatian. In the region of the
Central Caucasus the Sarmartian deposits are the earliest repre-
sentatives of the Miocene and occur in notable transgression of
Palaeogenic deposits. Isolated fish scales are usually the only
fossils that occur in the Upper Miocene of the Armenian plateau.
At Nakhichevan are found the fishes Clupea lanceolata, and C.
humilis, in the thick red, yellow and light colored Sarmatian
marls, which are nearly always unfossiliferous, and enclose gyp-
sum and rock salt. Near Julfa, lower down the Araxes Sarma-
tian saliferous marls discordantly overlie the uplifted Eocene
beds of Dary Mountain, and include Pecten sarmaticus, P. Hop-
kinsi. At Yaija lower down the Araxes, simalar saliferous
marls form a plain between the Devil and Itushem Mountains.
The Saliferous marls are extensively developed in Azerbaijan,

70 MINERAL RESOURCES

especially in the Valley of the Aji River, on which Tabriz is
situated. The saliferous series is widely distrbuted in the basin
of the Tortum and Olti Rivers, and also in the Valley of the
Lower Chorokh below Ispir. Rock salt is quarried around here.
Broad Frat Valley between the Lower Miocene limestone heights
of Pirnakapan and Ashkala is occupied by clays with thick seams
of white gypsum. The saliferous series is extremely developed
to the W. and S. W. of Erzinjan and S. of Erzerum where salt
pans occur. Some saliferous marls occur on the S. side of the
Taurus with the same salt pans.

PLIOCENE. The Pliocene fauna of Maragha, on the E.
coast of Lake Urmi, consists of the remains of Hipparion, and
of Cervus in a trachyte-tuff mixed with earthy gypsum.

The vegetation at the time of Pliocene was luxuriant enough to
support mastodons, giraffes and antelopes which could wander
unchecked from Greece to Persia'. Most of the Pliocene lakes
j>ersisted into the Pleistocene and even at the present day several
remnants still occur^either of fresh water such as Lakes Gokcha,
Chaldir, Toporavan and Nazik, or with varying degrees of
salinity such as Lakes Khozapin, Van, Udmi and the small soda
lakes southeast of Ararat.

The Pliocene fauna of Maragha, east of Lake Urmi, is very
similar to that of Pikermi, and also shows some points of resemb-
lance to the Sivalik fauna. Characteristic are Palacoh\u,s mara-
ghaniis, Giraffa attica, Palaeoreas Liiidcrmavcri, Tragoccros,
Hipparion gracilc, Rhinoceros Persiae, Mastodon pcntilici, Hy-
eximia.

Remains of a similar fauna occur in the bed of the Arpa river
at Alexandropol, and indicated at Zokh at the southern base of
the Taurus, but this locality still awaits exploration.

PLEISTOCENE. The Pleistocene deposits consist of hori-
ontal or slightly inclined calcareous tuffs, marls and clays, which
are often completely filled with Drcissensia poh'inorpha.

The deposits vary in their inter-relationship and arrange-
ment, in almost all exposures, in which they are shown (Melask-
ert, Khinis, Erzerum, Pasin, Erivan). \\'here the base of the
series is visible it is represented by conglomerate with rocks
such as Vivipara vivipara, Valvata piscinalis, Rissoa, Planorbis,
derived from the neighborhood and contains numerous shells,

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 71

Weritina, Bythinia, Melanopsis, Unio tmnidii^s, Anadonta, and
Sphaerium, as obtained from various known localities.

The brackish water deposit with Cardium catillus is found
in the Lori plain (Somkatian) and that with C. ovatum at Melik-
sherif in the Kelkid Valley. Recent diatomaceous earth is
known from Ilija in the plain of Erzerum and at Kissatip in the
Uraval Valley near Akalzik. Occasionally in the Dreissenia
beds, mammals (Elephas primigeniiis) appear, for example, at
Alexandropol and near the junction of the Lori and Debeda.
Elephas armeniacus is found at Khinis.

The Dreissensia beds are invariably either covered over or
interbedded with recent lavas and tuffs ; even today there are
present the remnants of the ancient lakes either fresh-water,
like the Gokcha, Chaldir, Toporaran Tortum, Bulama and Nazik
or more or less of saUne content as Van, Chosapin, Gojik (with
borax), and further the small soda lakes southeastward from
Ararat and the Lake Urmi in Persia. The lakes of Gori and
Goleh have dried out in historic times. Shrinking of the lakes
is often recognizable through old shore lines ; as, for example,
those observed by Oswald, on the south cast of Lake at 15, 40,
and 100 metrs in length and farther in long parallel terraces
of Pasin northward from Hassankala and those of the Olti be-
ween Nariman and Id.

In the border ranges, the recent beds are covered by the
travertine from lime and iron springs ; for example, at Hamsi
and Lijera, southward from Trabizond and at Mushoma in the
Pambak range. Even now deposits of calcareous tuffs are be-
ing made at many springs, for example, at Gugoghlan near
Bingol Mountain, Formerly it was developed on a gigantic
scale, as in the Khinis plain, along the foot of the Ak Mountain
and near Diadin. Undoubtedly the present wells compared with
the former ones are but feeble representatives. The extraor-
dinary vast masses of weathered debris in the entire Pontic range
still deserve mention.

GLACIAL ACTION.

The former existence of glaciers on the Bingol Mountain is
recognized and the evidence for them becomes amplified by ob-
serving three distinct moraines which commence at about 2 to

72 MINERAL RESOURCES

3 miles from the cliffs of the cirques. The Bingol glacier must
have been partially divided near its head by the long, terraced
ridges which extend northwards from Karakala.

On the north side of Ararat one small glacier still exists at
the head of the great Akhury chasm, descending to as low as
altitude of 8,000 feet — a notable fact when we consider that the
line of perpetual snow on this side of Ararat is as high as 14,000
feet. On the west side of Ararat a broad ravine cuts deeply
into the flanks of the Kippgol cone and is occupied by a quite
imposing glacier with very blue banded ice, issuing between
high moraines.

In descending to the plain erratic blocks and traversed
moraine-hillocks can be noticed between which are innumerable
lakes. In several places lavas alternated with moraine debris.
Between Igdir and Erivan may be crossed numerous moraines
full of obsidian fragments.

Alagoz on the north side of the great mid-Araxes depres-
sion has also been the birthplace of glaciers even at the present
time. Moraines were noticed also by Freeh in the valley of
the northern slope of the Gokcha ranges, i. e., at Delyan. The
height of Eshak Meidan also show morainic slopes. Numerous
traces of glacial action in the region of Chorokh is asserted by
Palgrav.

According to Major Mannsell the moraines and glacial lake-
lets occur on the broad Kashish Mountain (E. of Erzingan)
and on the Shaitan Mountain (also about 12,000 feet) W. of
Bingol.

In the Taurus short glaciers are known on the Jelu.

B. Anatolia.

Tchihatcheff distinguishes in Anatolia two special forma-
tions : — "Terrain Indetermines" and "Terrain de Transition."
In all cases he uses these collective terms to designate the non-
fossiliferous deposits, on account of high metamorphased and
dislocated conditions of the rocks. The formation of this nature
occur in Devonic, Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous and in
the different stages of Tertiary. They occup very limited spaces
and are found separated from one another. The rocks that are
not furnished by organic remains are attached to the fossiUf-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 73

erous deposits only by their mineralogical compositions and
stratigraphical conditions. The nonfossihf erous rocks are clay
slates, mica-schists and talc-schists, which abount in many points
of Anatolia, especially in Anti-Taurus and in the surrounding
districts of Bosphorus.

At the base of this series comes the formations of granites,
syenites and gneiss. The Olympus of Broussa is an intrusive
granite formation in the old schists with white marbles. Follow-
ing the same meridian we find a gneiss at Geordiz, Alachair on
the south of Aidin, etc. A very important granite series occur
between Yozgat and Nigde, on the northwest and southwest of
Kaiserieh.

Devonic fossils have been found in several places of Anti-
Taurus and near the Bosphorus. In the south of the Sea of
Marmora a zone of crystalline and schistose rocks of Paleozoic
period occurs. There are several other areas of ancient rocks
in the western part of Anatolia about which very little is known.

Carboniferous fossils have been found in some localities in
Anti-Taurus, in Eregli (Heraclea-Pontica) where they have
been worked for coal. Carboniferous fossils also occur in the
limestones of Balia-Maden at Mysia.

Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form a band south of
the Sea of Marmora, probably the continuation of the Mesozoic
band of the Black Sea coast. The direction of the folds of
this region is from west to east, but on the border of Phrygia
and Mysia they meet the northwesterly extension of the Taurus
folds and bend around the ancient mass of Lydia. The lime-
stones of Cretaceous age form a large part of the Taurus, the
interior zone probably includes the rocks of earlier period.
Cretaceous limestones and serpentine rocks take a large part in
the formation of well defined mountain system running nearly
parallel to the Black Sea coast from Batum to Sinope. West of
the Sinope Cretaceous beds form a long strip parallel to the
shore line.

The deposits of the Central or Lycaonian plateau consists
of fresh water marls and limestones of late Tertiary or Neogene
age. Along the southeastern margin, in front of the Taurus
stands a line of great volcanoes stretching from Kara-dagh to
Argaeus. They are now extinct, but were probably active till

74 MINERAL RESOURCES

the close of the Tertiary period. Limestones of Eocene age
form a large part of the Taurus. The folding of Anti-Taurus
effects the Eocene but not the Miocene, while in the Taurus the
Miocene beds have been elevatd, but without much folding, to
great height. Marine Eocene beds occur near the Dardanelles,
but the Tertiary deposits of this part of Anatolia are mostly
freshwater and belong to the upper part of the system. In
western Mysia they are much disturbed but in eastern Mysia
they are nearly horizontal. They are often accompanied by
volcanic rocks, which are mainly andesitic and they commonly
lie unconformably upon the older beds.

SILURIAN. — The Silurian is reported only from the dis-
trict of Bosphorus with the following fossils: Trochoceras Bar-
randii, Tentaculites ornatus, Spirifer Pellico and Davonsti, Spiri-
fer cristata, Orthis Gervillei and basalts, Strophomena rhom-
boides and Bocci Boblayei etc. All collected by Archaic and
Verneuil.

DEVONIAN. — Lower Devonic beds are found in the dis-
tricts of Bosphorus, formiing two isolated strips. In the littoral
of Bosphorus they strike S. W. and S. E. The principal rocks
of Lower Devonic formations are limestones and clay slates
passing gradually into mica-schists. The mica-schists and lime-
stones are equally associated with grits and sometimes with non-
crystalline quartz. The Devonic beds of Anatolia look poor in
fauna when it is compared with America and Europe. But, yet
it is very well developed when it is compared with the fauna
of Carbonic age of the Anatolia. The Devonic fauna is specially
concentrated in the blue limestones of Kanlidja-Kov (Bos-
phorus) where Homalonotiis Gervillei and longicaudatus, Vern;
Spirifer subspeciosus; S. VerneiiUi, Murch ; ^. Triger, Vern.
Orthis orbicularis, Arch.; O. Trigeri; O. Beauinonti, Vern; 0.
devonica. Orb. ; Leploena, ind. ; Chonetes Boblayei, Vern. ; C.
sarcinvlafa; Autopora tuboe-forwis, Goldf. ; Pleuro dyctium prob-
lamaticiiim, Goldf. ; C onstinopolitanum , F. Roem, fossils are
identified.

Upper Devonic beds are reported from the southern littoral,
between Selefke and KiHndria, and from the Anti-Taurus. The
beds in Karapounar-Dagh strike N. W. ; in Tchatal-Oghlou,
Karakov, Baghchejik and Yerebakan strike S. E. ; in the dis-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 75

tricts from Feke to Hadjin, strike W. or S. W.. The prin-
cipal rocks are white and blue limestones, alternating with dark
schists or yellow marns. The Upper Devonic system of Anti-
Taurus is similar in minrealogy and stratigraphy to the Lower
Devonic of Bosphorus. Only the vertical redressment of the
beds and the discordance between their elongation is more fre-
quent in the Upper Devonian. The characteristic fossils found
in Tchatal-Oghlou : Rynchonella Boloniensis, Orb.; Atrypa reti-
cidaris, L. ; Spirifer Vemmdli, Murch. ; 5". Pellico, Arch, and
Vern. ; Orthis striatida, Schlot. -jProductus subacideatus, Murch. ;
CyatophyUum qnadrigemintim, Goldf.; C. cespitosum, Goldf . ;
Campophylium, asiaticwn, M. Edw. and Haime. ; Favosites cer-
mcornis, Blainv. ; Alveolites suhorhicidaris, Lam. ; Stromatopora
polym-orpha, Goldf. The same fauna is also identified in the
blue limsetones of Feke with the following extra fossils : —
Spirifer Trigeri, Vern. ; 5". Seminoi, Vern. ; Chonotes nana, Vern. ;
Productus Mivrchison, Kon. ; Fenestella antigua, Goldf. ; Cyoto-
phyllum Marmini, M. Edw. and J. H. Favosites Tchihatcheff,
J. Haime. ; F. reticulata, Blainv. ; Alveolites suboequalis, M. Edw.
and J. H. ; Coenites fruticosus, Stein.

In the Devonic fossiliferous rocks of the Bosphorus is found
iron and copper pyrite ; in the transition system of the same age
is found corondum associated with titaniferous iron, argentifer-
our galena, lead, iron etc.

CARBONIFEROUS. — Carboniferous beds are reported from
the northern littoral of Anatolia, between Heraclea (Culm or
Yordale beds) and Amasry, and from the Anti-Taurus. The
Carbonic is found in the same region as the Devonic, they
strike mostly S. W. and conform the. Devonic deposits of Bos-
phorus and Anti-Taurus, with a direction of S. E. and N. W.
The Carboniferous system of Anatola is represented by lime-
stones formations and coal measures. The coal belongs to Mid-
dle Carboniferous Coal measures and the limestone belongs to
Lower Carboniferous Marine forwifition. These are some iso-
lated members of the long chain of Carboniferous system of
Europe and America. The coal and the limestones are con-
centrated in the same .direction. The coal deposits are more in
northern sections of Anatolia than in the southern districts.
The Lower Carboniferous Marine formations are much more

76 MINERAL RESOURCES

developed than the Coal Measures. This shows that the coal
is rarely continued in the limestones. To the limestones of
Carbonic age joins clay slates and grits in different talcous
rocks, specially in great strata of mica-schists, sometimes alter-
nating with one another and sametimes forming a considerable
separate mass. The beds of Carbonic age are often strongly re-
dressed, folded, dislocated, and disposed in the anti-clinal or
synclinal series, as in Ilkas-Dagh, in the district of Yeni-Khan,
along the Lake Beishehr, between Yailaji and Hadjin, etc.

The Carbonic age of Anatolia is very poor in fauna and
flora. From this consideration it may be said the conditions
prevailed in Carbonic age has not been favorable for the de-
velopment of organic life. Schlehan has identified, in the dis-
trict of Amasry, the Strophomena antiquata, Strophomena acu-
leata. Fischer has identified the Harmodites radians {Syringo-
pora reticulata, Goldf., Syringopora catenata, J. Morris). The
Strophomena antiquata, Br. (Productus semireticiilatus, Mart.)
is exclusively carbonic, but the Strophomena aculeata, Br. {Pro-
ductus horridus, Sow.) is probably Permian.

The exploitable mineral substances are concentrated in the
transition system of Carbonic age.

PERMIAN. — The Permian is not known anywhere else,
but in the transition system of Amasry district by the Stropho-
mena aculeata, Br. and Productus horridus, Sow. fossils.

TRIASSIC. — The Triassic croppings are not very well
known in Anatolia. Only in the northwestern part of peninsula,
this formation appears with increasing frequency towards the
Eastern Alps., This fact reveals to us a sea extending from
the interior of Asia over the south of Europe. It is this
sea which the study of the distribution disclosed to Neumayer,
and it has been named by him the "Central Mediterranean."

JURASSIC. — The Jurassic is reported to form three strips
situated in the southwest of Angora, in the south of Boli, and
in the littoral of Paphlagonia, in the district of Amasry. All
these strips are composed of limestones and marnous rocks,
and the whole formation is characterized by a considerable re-
dressment of beds. The predominating directions are S. W.-
N. E. and N. W. -S. E. with a local oscillation from north to
south. The Jurassic fossils in Anatolia are not very abundant.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA tj

In the calcareous rocks of Angora district are found the frag-
ments and imprints of Ammonites among which are Ammon-
ites tortisulcatis, Orb., Ammonites arduennensis , Orh., Ammon-
ites plicatilis, Sow., and Am,monites tarticus, Pusch.

These facies are sufficient to arrange the formation of Cepha-
lopodes, in the Oxfordian Stage. The absence of these facies
in the Amasry formations indicates more recent stage, prob-
ably Kimmeridgian or Portlandian which is comparatively poor
in Ammonites. In all cases it is probable that the Jurassic for-
mations of Anatolia are of same age as the formations of
Crimea and European Russia where Jurassic deposits are not
newer than Coral-rag, and not older than the Kelloway-rocks.

CREACEOUS. — The Lowter Cretaceous beds do not exist in
Anatolia. The Upper Cretaceous is rested upon the Transition.
The Creaceous system of Anatolia is identified by the white and
tufa chalf formations. The white chalk is very well developed
in the Abdi-Pasha, Ekhty-Oghlou, Bithynia, Amasia, Pontus, Ci-
licia, etc., all containing Cycloites in the vicinity of Cyclolites
Cancellata. The tufa chalk is only represented by a short de-
posit situated between Kizilja Punar and Heraclea formng an
isolated mass in between the two white chalk formations. The
Cretaceous formations extend in two directions — N. E. S. W.
and N. W. The formation existing between Kizilja-Punar and
Heraclea represent the oldest tufa chalk in the peninsula. Both
white and tufa chalk beds have very normal physiognomy, are
generally composed of white marnous limestones, horizontally
stratified, and, in some regions, considerably modified by the
action of eruptive rocks. The eruptive action has sometimes been
anterior and sometimes posterior to chalk deposits. The metals
derived from eruptive rocks are replaced by limestones. The
aspects of Grauw;ake, due to the eruptive action is found in the
district of Amassia and Tokat, as an equivalent to the porphyritic
detritus formation of the Caucasus. The Cretaceous rocks of
Anatolia are very poor in fossils. In calcareous series, associ-
ated with sandstone, between Akche-Ova and Abdi-Pasha are
found the following fossils: — Ammonites varians, Sow., Acmoea
ind., Terebratula semiglobosa, Sow., Inoceranus Lamarkii, Sow.>
Ananchytus ovata, Lamk., Pentacrinites, ind., Scyphia indeter-
mined.

78 MINERAL RESOURCES

Among the compact sandstones existing near Kizilja Punar
the following fossils are noticed: — Tercbratula desparilis, Orb.,
qiiadricostatus, Sow., Pectcn ind., Inoceranus Lamarkii, Brong.,
Alvcolina near A. cretacea, Arch., etc. The chains of Amasia
, and Tokat are characterized by Hippurites.— //!>/> irr/f^i cormt-
vaccinuin.

EOCENE. — The Eocene formations of Anatolia surrounding
the older rocks begin with sandstones, conglomerates, and clays,
which become calcareous and nummulitic upwards, and then
change again to unfossiliferous sandstones and shales with sub-
ordinate lacustrine beds. These strata are much disturbed and
faulted and are often vertical. The deposits of this nature are
wide spread, forming entirely separate and large patches in the
opposite directions of the peninsula; in Mysia, Lydia on the
west; in Pisidia, Lycia, Isauria and Cilicia on the south; in
Paphlagdnia, Galatia and Bithynia on the north.

The Eocene of this country does not seem to contain a con-
siderable lacustrine deposits, all mostly being of pelagic origin.
From the fades and other stratigraphic considerations the Eocene
system belongs to the grand type of Aswtico Mediterranean ac-
cording to Archaic. This system is characterized by the rich
fauna of Rhizopodes and of the generas of Xummulites. Fos-
sils : — Terebelhim conviilatum, Lmk., Corbis lamellosa, Lmk.,
Cardium hybridum, Desh., Lucina gigantea, Desh Ostera rari-
lanella, Millev., Nummulites biaritseusis, A'liinuiulitcs perforata,
Niiinmulites exponcns, Alvcolina ovoidea, Operculina grannlosa,
Orbitoides dispansa. In two places in the vicinity of Angora,
the gypsums and sandstones alternating with white marns contain
Certhitiin Tchihatchcff and an Ostraca parisensis, in Yozgat,
the sandstones, are characterized by Alveolines. The Eocene
deposits look rarely intercolated directly in the Miocene, but
mostly underlaid the lacustrine deposits which are probably
Pliocene.

OLIGOCENE. — The Oligocene is only identified in the dis-
trict surrounding the Dardanelles where immediately overlying
tt e Nummulitic rocks is a succession of lacustrine sandstones,
cluys, and shales, interstratified with volcanic rocks and contain-
ing coal seams. This formation is identified by the fossil^ «^/ira
cotherium, nearly related to A. Minus as evidence of its stage.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 79

Prof. Toula, in 1895 found remains of Chrysodiiim (Fortisia)
Lan::acanum. He moreover identified Sterculia Labrtisca. These
plant remains occur between Kara-Dere and Boz Borum, in two
marl beds, in a series of sandstones with layers of conglomerates
and slaty marl, dipping- 45° north-northwestward. At Keshan a
thin fossiliferous seam, contains abundant casts of Corbicula
(Cyrcna) semistriata and Melanopsis afif. Mclanopsis fiisiformis,
accompanied by plant impressions. From the abundance of
Corbicula semistriata it is certain that the coal seams in the Dar-
danelles districts is Oligocene.

The Lower Tertiary volcanic rocks show a marked tendency to
appear along the coast of the Eocene Sea, and in long belts fol-
lowing the strike of the foldings of the Lower Tertiary strata.
The wide spread late Eocene and Oligocene volcanic rocks would
certainly seem to imply considerable differences in the relief of
the land, at the time at which they were ejected and is difficult
to reconcile this with the equally wide spread coal seams, pre-
sumably requiring shallow lake or marshy country with only
slight differences of level.

MIOCENE. — The Miocene of Anatolia is known to exist in
the districts of Cilicia, Lydia, Caria and Troad. They are de-
posited in the sea bordering these regions. The rocks of Mio-
cene age are white or yellow limestones (silicious, amorphous,
and crystalline), conglomerates, marns, and gypsums. Rocks
are horizontally disposed, and rested upon the Lower Tertiary
and sometimes upon the transition. They are sometimes com-
petely exposed and sometimes covered by recent lacustrine sedi-
ments.

The existence of the Helvetian. — Tortonian deposits between
the Ponto-Caspian and Mediterranean is proposed by J. English.
These are overlain by fresh water Sarmatic strata with Lignite
and Naptha, successively marine Mactra Limestones, which oc-
cupy nearly the whole of the northern shore of, the Sea of Mar-
mora, to the exclusion of Levantine Beds suggested by ¥. Von
Hochstetter, as filling up this area. These Moctra Limestones are
in direct continuation with those already known in the southern
Troad and in Dardanelles. At Heraclea occurs an expossure
of sands and sandy limestones, with a slight southerly dip. These
beds, close to the present sea level at Eregli, contain typical

8o MINERAL RESOURCES

Helvetian-Tortonian fossils— P^c^en aduncus, Alectryonia Vir-
leti, and Anadora diluvii, also Ostrea lamillosa. Near Myrio-
phyto, on the southern shore of the Sea of Marmora, a band,
full of Oistrea crassissima occurs under soft yellow sand, dipping
about 45" S.-S. E. 700 feet below sea level. Heraclea and
Myriophyto Lower Miocene mam shell beds, thus formed links
in a chain of deposits of the same age, extending from the
Crimea to the Mediterranean; they are detached fragments of
a continuous sea-beds.

The rocks of Sarmatic stage of the Miocene is well exposed
at Evenkovi (Troad) which now known to border the western
coast of Trojan Plain, beyond the mouth of the Touzla, near
the promontory of Baba-Burnou. At the site of the ancient
Hamaxitos, the Mactra-Kalk occurs with its characteristic fos-
sils from the Acropolis. This limestone is undoubtedly marine
origin. Beneath the limestone is a great thickness of sand and
clay beds, which are underlain by a conglomerate and probably,
at the bottom of the series, by a stratum of red clay. The con-
glomerate chiefly composed of Andesites and Liperites. All or-
ganic remains indicates that the strata belong to the Sarmatic
stage. The marine beds which overlie the Mactra-Kalk are largely
developed south of the mouth of the Touzla, and contain great
number of fossils, among which are many Ostreae and Gastro-
pods. The fresh water series occupies a large part of the in-
terior of the Troad, about the great plain of Mendere, between
Eanedeh and Bairarmitch, as well as along the southern coast,
west of Papazly. According to Prof. Neumayer it must be
Upper Miocene, Mio-Pliocene or Lower Pliocene, from the de-
terminations of fossils. Numerous oscillation of the land, as
indicated by the varying character of strata, must have occurred
during the Miocene and Pliocene periods. In all probability
these movements were connected with the extrusion of the erup-
tive rocks so abjandant in the region.

Middle Tertiary has been an epoch of the formation of salt
beds which are very abundant in Anatolia. Most of Miocene
formation are pelagic origin containing in general — Cerithium
■modosoplicatiivi, Horn., Fragilia fragilis, L., Cardimn plicatum,
Eichw. (C gracile, Pusch.) and Cardimn obselatum, Eichw C.
protractum, id., C. lithopodolicum, Dub.). Among these the

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 8i

last two are the characteristic evidence of Sarmatic stage.

PLIOCENE. — Past Sarmatic eastward extension of the cen-
tral fold of Tertiary rock resulted in the upheaval of the Dahan-
Aslan and Serian-Tepe ridge in the district surrounding the
Dardanelles. This upheaval closed the connection between the
Marmora basin and the Gulf of Xeros, by the formation of a
dam, which though much weathered down, is still i8o ft. above
the present water level. The dam thus formed was the proxi-
mite cause of the cutting of the Bosphorus and of drainage of
Marmora into the Black Sea, during Pliocene times. The con-
glomerate rocks, upon which Gahpoli is built, consists in great
part of shells of Didacua crossa, Dreissensia Tschandae, and
Dreissensia polimorpha. Prof. Andrussov considers the Galli-
poli conglomerate to be the equivalent of the Tchandas beds
at Kertch, containing Dreissensia polytnorpha, Dreissensia Tchau-
dae, Cardiuni cros^suni, Cardium Casecal and Cardium Tchau-
dae, which he shows to be an Upper Pliocene fauna of Caspian
type, deposited in an enclosed brackish lake before the Dardan-
elles were in existence. In general the Pliocne marine and lacus-
trine deposits of Anatolia are found in the Constantinople district,
in the regions surrounding the Dardanelles in the littoral of
Sinope, in the Meandre Valley and in the Melik-Sherif district
with Cardium edule, Cardium protractum, Cardium. Ovatum,
Desh. Cardium gracile, and Mactra deltoides near the Mactra
trianffula, from which Cardium edule and Mactra triangula are
the best characteristic fossils of the Pliocene age.

PLEISTOCENE. — In several places along the shore line
of the Sea of Marmora is found a loamy clay surface deposits,
containing scattered shells of Mediterranean fades, at the heights
from lo-ioo feet above the water. On the top of a law-coast-
diff west of Gallipoli, there has been found a deposit of sand
with Ostrea edulis, Osilium ttwhinatis, Gibbula adriatic and Gih-
bula Biasolleti at about 40 feet above the sea level. About a
mile further west, on top of a cHff 90 100 feet high, formed of
Sarmatic clay and marley limestone, is found a scattered sur-
face deposits of Cerastodenna edule, Pullastra pullaistra, Tapes
of. Dianae, Murex truncuhis, Murex Brandaris, Cerithium vulga-
turi, Loripes lactens; and Petricola lithophya, Didacna crossa
and Dreissensia polymorpha were also found probably derived

82 MINERAL RESOURCES

from Gallipoli conglomerates.

GLACIAL PERIOD. — The Glacial aation has been proved
in this classic country by the existence of a considerable num-
ber of lacustrine lakes and by the striated angular boulders in
the red loamy clays, dug in Roumeli-Hissar (Constantinople).
Calvert has also found boulders and clays in the Dardanelles
Valley, apparently distributed along an old beach from the foot
of Kemel to the Five Pines, also large blocks of quartz, some
of them situated in the ancient river-gravels of Rhodius 50-60
feet above the present level. This quartz block must have
come from the auriferous reef at Astyra, about 12 miles distant
to the east-southeast.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.

Too little is known at the present time concerning the strati-
graphic position of the pre-Devonian metamorphic schists. So
that we cannot assign the period of the foldings. Until it is
more definitely known we can assume that the S. W.-N. E. ex-
tending folds, in the crystalline schist of Taurus, in the marbles
and schists of the Kisilja Mountain, Shatin Mountai|i, Akh
Mountain and of Dersim in the centre of the plateau, as well
as those in the smaller outcrops of metamorphic rocks, in the
northern and eastern border ranges, in Artvin and Ardanush
Valley in the Pontic Region, in the Meschic horst, in Somkatian
Mountains, in the region of Daralagoz and the Karabagh were
caused by the Caladonic Mountain building. In all these regions
northeastern-southwestern strikes are universal. It appears that
the land surface has been broken into separate blocks after
folding, which for the most part sank down at the base of the
geosyncline of the Devonic Sea.

The Devonian is at present known only from eastern Ar-
menia ; but the sea of this period evidently stretched on in-
terruptedly toward the westward into Asia Minor, for in Araxes
Channel and in Antitaurus the succession of formations and
the facies of the Middle and Upper Devonic are identical. The
calceola limestone following upon sandstones and the conglom-
erates are evidences of the transgression of the Devonic Sea
which soon developed such a rich coral and Brachiopod fauna.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA , 83

With the end of the Devonic no aUeration occurred in the
physical relationship. Without interruption the coralline lime-
stones continued until the Middle of the Upper Carbonic (Mos-
cow formation). At this time the sea became more shallow as
may be inferred from, the appearance of Fusilinas, Bryozoas, and
Calcareous aglae. At the end of this period, according to Freeh,
a strong folding took place running through N. W.-S. E. di-
rection. According to Bonnet no folding took place in Armenia
at this time. And the Permo-Triassic lies wholly concordantly
upon the preceding beds even implying a deepening of the sea.

Shales of the Upper Permic and the Lower Triassic are
known only from the region of Julfa, on the Araxes and the
Kasanyaila Mountain. We have to do here, probably, with
sedimentation in an eastern gulf of that sea which stretches
from the Indian salt chain through Persia, entering then into
Armenia under the dominion of a period with contniental con-
ditions. Probably it stood in close connection or relation with
the old Pontic tableland which at some time formed a half
island of the western arctic peninsula. Also at this time the
Central Caucasus was raised ; for there Liassic shales lie dis-
cordantly over Palaeozoic shales with the Calamites and Syringo-
dendron.

Recently the existence of the Triassic sea in the Crimea
western Caucasus and in Western Anatolia have been proved.
Crustal movements continued through Post-Triassic time, but
the Julfa bed of Araxes region and of the northern Persia only
show flaxures. Armenia seems to have remained a part of a
stableland whose eastern coast was washed by the Liassic and
Dogger Sea, which towards Persia became deeper. Only the
eastern border of Armenia seems to have been touched by the
transgression known from Dobrusha and Mangishlak, which
spread from Bajocian to *he Callovian epoch. Remains of the
plants and the elastic character of the Bajocian sediments points
to the close proximity of the coast. After a small regression
in the Oxf ordian and Sequanish the Kimmeridgian transgression
started strongly in the region of Karabagh as well as Debrusha
and Libanan. In the eastern part of Armenia clear proofs of
Tithonian regressions are found and in one region which ex-
tends from the Meschic horst southward to eastern Karabagh,

84 MINERAL RESOURCES

began a pre-Tithonian folding from the south, which preceded
the volcanic activity. And as a result of this folding a large
part of Armenia and of Caucasus rose up over the sea level.
The fresh water deposit of the Purbeck, and the brown coal
beds of Migri (western Karabagh) prove the dominance of con-
tiental conditions.

In the eastern border range there exists a pronounced gap
between the Kimmeridgian and the lower Cretacic. This regres-
sion is continued still longer in the region of Lake Urmi, where
Callovian overlain by the Hauterivian tuff.

The broad transgression of the Middle Cretacic makes itself
felt also in Armenia. At Gerjer, just south from Jufa, on
the Araxes lies a carbonic. The Cenomanian (Caprotinen)
limestones of the eastern border range which agrees with
the Mediterranean are separated from the north Armenia. In
Caucasian and Pontic Cenomanian limestones the central
European facies dominates. The facial difference of the
two regions holds also in the Upper Cretacic. At the east of the
Urgonian they seem to have been separated by a neck of land.
This extended over the Somkatian Mountain range, which still
to-day consists partly of crystalline schist, which except in the
Valley of Bolnis, where they are overlain only by Hippurites,
limestones, are covered by no younger sediments. Further to the
south in the Pambak and Gotcha ranges another part of the
shale continent had remained stable until it was flooded by the
Turonian sea. In the Turonian still existed the Somkatian
land barrier as facies limit. Turanian Hippurites limestones
stretched with interruption from Karabagh along the cliff of
Shatin Mountain to the Frat. These Hippurites are found as
recently shown also in the northern slope of the Pontic Range
and of the Taurus. During the Cenonian there seems in oppos-
ition to this, i. e., to have existed extending west and south of
land somewhere from Batum to Ararat, for littoral sediments
with the detritus of syncroneous volcanoes are found along
the eastern border of this zone. Southward from Batum there
cannot have been land; for on the northern slope of the Pontic
range there is Cenonian, which is lacking, however, southward of
this range to the northern border of the Taurus, where the Med-
iterranean Hippurites facies of the Cenonian is well known.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 85

The upper Cenonian of Eastern Karabagh shows that the
sea toward the northeast to Daghistan became deeper. Be-
cause of the general clastic character of the lower Eocene in the
north, northeast and south and its content of brown coal, it is
more than probable that at the beginning of the Tertiary most
of Central Armenia was land. The red sandstones and con-
glomerates are plainly products of weathering of a land, long
exposed above sea-level, along the borders of which coals de-
veloped in delta marshes. The negative movement agrees with
that of the regression, which is so characteristic for the geosyn-
clinal zone, the Alpine region. Beginning at this time during
the course of Tertiary, Armenia became from a continental
region or region on the border of a geosynclinal zone extending
from Europe to Asia. The beds beginning with Numimulites
perforatus, typical for the Middle Eocene of the Alpine, geosyn-
clines are noticeable in the Tigris basin and in the Zagros Chain.
The above named beds lie mostly upon Turonian, in places
even on palaeozoics, and began with great red colored conglom-
erates. Their fauna is very rich. The sea in which they were
deposited was warm and favorable for the development of num-
erous and manifold Nummuliths. In the Pontic region the vol-
canic activity which had begun in the Cretaceous with the form-
ation of rhyolites and dacites reached its maximum in the
Eocene. Lava streams of hornblende and augite-andesites ba-
salt and the tuffs of these spread over the sea bottom. The
thin limestone banks interbedded with the volcanic rocks are
poor in fuana because of the unfavorable conditions of animal
growth. During the Upper Eocene the Antitauric folding was
evident in South Armenia and in the Karabagh, so that an ex-
tensive part of the Armenia again became main land.

The Flysch facies of the Upper Eocene, with fish scales and
activity is exhibited strongly in the north (Akalzik and Kur
basin) and less distinctly in the west Karabagh. Between Hip-
sala and Kisbeli these Flysch facies appear again in the outer-
most part of West Armenia.

In the beginning of the Oligocene the old Somketian land bar
region was widespread. It completely separates the Caucasian
sea, with its central European and Arabian character (Akalzik
basin) from the coral limes of the Daralagoz, with its Castel-

86 MINERAL RESOURCES

Gomiberto facies extending into Persia. Littoral aqueous de-
posits and land plants' have been discovered on the border of
the Armenian land of that time at Argachi (Northw^est of
Ararat) and at Platana on the Black Sea. They show relation
to the Cilician Oligocene with Sotska facies. The post-Oligocene
folding which appears in the Cilicia also raised the Oligocene
region of the North Armenia, but does not seem to have influ-
enced the coral line of Daralagoz which is overlain conformably
by Lower Eocene.

The Miocene of Armenia begins in general with a coarse
conglomerate which shows a most widespread transgression in
this region. The Palaoezoic plateau of Urmi and Maku (south-
west of Ararat) which were dry during the Mesozoic sank into
the Miocene Mediterranean, the north coast of which extends
in littoral detritus at the foot of the Neocomian heights along the
north of the Frat of Sipikor (norh or Ersinjan) to the east
through Kop Mountain. The purity shown by the Miocene
(Plelvetian and Tortorian) coral and Lithothamnian lime, is
over. And the lack of fiaviatile deposit indicates that the Anti-
tauric folding had almost been worn to a peneplain. The de-
trital deposits of the Upper Eocene and Oligocene were derived
from the energetic denudation in the region of this land.

Immediately after the Lower Tortonian a period of folding
began, syncronous with that of the Alpine which laid the Mio-
cene chalks into folds. The character of the folding was various
in different parts of the land while the Miocene at Bayazid
in the west at Arabkir and Kisheli, it is still horizontal. In
the latter case the lack of folding can be attributed to the great
resistance of the old mass. Further west, the Miocene limestones
massed between the -Tauric horst and the Syrian plateau, again
show folding, as at Killis, Argona and Mardin. At the same
time in this Middle Miocene there were mighty intrusions of
ultra-basalt rocks which for the greater part have been serpen-
tinized.

In the Sarmatian epoch a continuous aridity followed and
desert conditions prevailed. Then the formation of red sand-
stone and conglomerate (often from serpentine components)
and of clays (often with great gypsum and rock salt veins)
ended. Then fresh-water conditions began; for example at

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 87

Khoi and Tabris in Persia. The folding continued during this
heterogenous Sarmatian epoch. Abich has observed two breaks
in this series at Khoi. Beds of this age extended in a broad
zone through northern and southern Armenia. In the south
the "gypsum" bearing series forms a border at the Zagros and
Taurus, in the north of the Sarmatian formation stretches from
the northern border chain to the Caucasus and from the Black
to Caspian sea. While the beds thrown southward on the south-
ern slopes of Caucasus are overturned toward the north in the
Thrialetic chain. Between these two regions in the Mechic
horst they lie horizontal and undisturbed.

After this epoch there is no more folding in Armenia. The
Middle PHocene, lacustnrie tufifs of Maragha and Alexandropol
lie horizontal with their interesting vertebrate faunas. The
continuous elevation of the land gave the Armenian highland
their plateau character in the end and were accompanied by
shattering, raising and sinking of great blocks. These processes
began in the lower Pliocene. It is shown by the forceful earth-
quakes in the graben that it has not come to an end.

The Pleistocene sea deposits are widespread in the Central
plateau. The shells of Dreissensia polymarpha are often found
forming beds. These late formations also show no faulting but
lie rather horizontal or with a dip of 2-3 degrees. They are in
great measure covered by lava sheets which have either been ex-
tended from fissures or have been poured from colossal vol-
canoes (Ararat, Alagoz, Sipan, Nimrud, Samsar, etc.) and
smaller pistules arranged in rows (Soganly, Alaja, etc.) The
still existing great lakes are partly salt (Lake Chpsapin) partly
fresh (Gokcha and Chaldir). Absence of Dreissensia polymor-
pha suggests that there has been a change in physical conditions,
as already ascertained. The last voncanic eruption of the Nim-
rud was in 1441. Tendurek is still in solphatara condition.

2. Anatolia

No obsevations have yet been made to accertain the Primary
(Pre-Devonic) formations of Anatolia. Although the old gneiss
and granite series admitted to be formed before the Transition,
but, yet, in same places, specially in Lycaonia and Galatia, the
granites reveal a comparatively recent origin ; and some gneissic

88 MINERAL RESOURCES

rocks, specilly developed in western Anatolia, pass gradually into
clay slates and calcareous rocks characterized by Devonic fossils.

During the long period of Transition only five fossiliferous
islets had been formed in Anatolia. Of these three belonging
to Devonian are known to exist to-day in the districts of Bos-
phorus. Southern Cilicia, and Anti Tourus. These three insular
groups, being emerged during the Devonian, have all gone
through the subsequent periods, while the non-fossiliferous beds
belonging to "Terrain de Transition Inditermines," have never
been lifted until Middle Tertiary.

The Devonic beds are often disturbed and they exhibit peculiar
stratigraphic divergencies. They are characterized by the sa:me
paleontological richness and variety as the European and Amer-
ican formations. But, meanwhile the Devonic system of Anatolia
should not be considered poor either in fauna or flora. Various
species of Crustaceans, Moluscs, Bryazoas, Annelids, Radiarians
and Polyps Abound in these districts.

From the five islets formed du.ring the Transition, the last two
belongs to Carboniferous which are known to exist to-day in
Anti Taurus and in the littoral of Black Sea. These islets being
also emerged during the Devonian, have gone through the sub-
sequent periods. Carboniferous beds are also often disturbed
and they show the same peculiar stratigraphic divergeneus. But
Carboniferous system of Anatolia is very poor in fauna and
flora ; the pelagic conditions and volcanic activities during this
period have been inimical for the development of organc life.

From the Carboniferous to the Middle Jurassic, Anatolia is
represented only by the islets of "Terrain de Transition," because,
these islets show very slight vestiges of the Permian, Triassic and
Lower Jurassic deposits. During the Middle Jurassic Anatolia
has recevied some representative locations and has developed
the stage of Oxfordian directly upon the Transition system.

The Jurassic and Cretaceous formations are, same way, im-
perfectly developed in Anatolia. The Cretacjeou^ period is
identified by white and tufa chalk formations. The beds show
a great variety, from the normal disposition to the most violent
redressment. This phenomena is due to the eruptive actions of
serpentine, trachyte, pyroxene and porphyry. Igneous activity is

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 89

much more pronounced in this period and dislocated the beds all
the way through the Devonic, Carboniferous and Jurassic. The
most characteristic Cretaceous formations are found to day in
the littoral of Black Sea. Since the upheaval of this littoral
band, it is not subjected to immersion of any long duration, and
in no point it is covered by the sediments of any subsequent
periods. From this point of view, during the Cretaceous, the
Black Sea, without any communication with Mediterranean Sea,
was occupying an immense area, extending up to Baltic Sea in
cross of Podolia, Volhynia, and eastern Prussia on the north.
Lake Aral on the east, and Asia Minor on the south. According
to Prof. Oscar Fraa's observations in Syria, the Cretaceous
mountains surrounding the littoral, have never been subjected
to immersion after their upheaval. So that, certain points in
northern Asia Minor, had already drawn limit, since the Cre-
taceous, on the southern littoral of the Black Sea. Same way
the eastern borders of the Mediterranean was already marked
by certain mountain chains on the Syrian coast, at this time.

The eminently insular character which Anatolia conserved up
to the formation of chalk, never disappeared until Lower Ter-
tiary. At this time the Cretaceous band of northern littoral with
many islands of Transition, had been disseminated upon the sur-
. face of the peninsula and connected with vast deposits of Lower
Tertiary of eastern Europe. These European deposits are dis-
tinguished from the type of "Asiatico-Mediterranean" by its
well developed facies of Rhizopodes, through which Asia Minor
is to-day, considered as a classic country of Nummulites.

Another system, entirely independent from the Tertiary fos-
siliferous rocks and entirely barren of organic trace, has been
distinctly overlaid by the Nummulitic group. This is the Upper
Stage. The most part of the Lower Tertiary of Anatolia have
never been subjected tO' immersion, after its upheaval. Because
the majority of the recent formations are exposed, represent in-
dej>ent deposits, and are placed in considerable distances from the
formers.

B}'- the upheaval of Eocene deposits one great part of the
Black Sea was lost in the directions of north-west-north and
north. In this way it was separated from the Baltic Sea by the
emersion of eastern Prussia, and a numerous insular groups ex-

90 MINERAL RESOURCES

tended in the southern regions of this sea. These were connected
with vast continental surface, hke the government of Poltava,
Voroneje, Tombof, Penza, etc. So that, after the emersion of the
LowerTertiary deposits, the Black Sea resumed the granitic
steppe comprised between the Bong, Dnieper and the coal basin
of Donetz. But, the southern, western and eastern limits of this
sea have not submitted to a notable modification. After the up-
heaval of Eeocene deposits, the Black Sea was same way cut off
from all communication with the Mediterranean. The Crimea
was only existing in a narrow band, rising up as an island, and
was connected with the waters of Caspian Sea and the Lake Aral,
at the middle of which now, stands up the insular mass of Cau-
casus.

The Middle Tertiary of AnatoHa is represented by the Num-
mulitic side of the Miocene Sea. The upheaval of this sediments
is sometimes operated very slowly, as it may be seen by the vast
Miocene deposits of Cilician littoral, and sometimes very violent-
ly, specially in the vicinity of eruptive rocks.

The period of Miocene has been the time of rock-salt forma-
tion which occur extensively in Anatolia, specially in the Lyca-
onian plateau. The majority of these deposits are of pelagic ori-
gin. Miocene beds, either marine or lacustrine, are poor in fauna
and flora. The large continental mass that Asia Minor possessed
during this period was imfavbrable for the development of or-
ganic life. At this period, Anatolia was separated from the
Greece but the Cyprus island was yet forming a junction with the
Cilicia. This was sunken during Pliocene and reappeared in the
Quartei-nary. A numerous debris of Quarternary fauna is found
in Cyprus island without any trace of its separation from the
Cilician littoral.

During Miocene the Black Sea acquired a considerable exten-
sion on the north. This extension submitted to a diminition of
the eastern regions. After the emersion of an insular mass, the
plateau of Ust-Urt, this region separated in two basins, which
are to-day called, the Caspian and Aral. The emersion of this
island accompanied with a depression of the surrounding coun-
tries, resulting in the grand Touranian Depression and constitut-
ing the tract of Asiatic Continnent.

Sarmatian Sea lost one part of its salinity during Pliacene. In

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 91

different modification of its size it was connected into a estuary
basin, where Aralo Caspian type of deposits overlaid upon the
Sarmatian. The northern side of Asia Minor continued marking
the southern littoral by a vast sheet of brackish water, which
penetrated into Eagean Sea and left many traces of its sojourn
on the western littoral of the penunsula. During the epoch of
Aralo-Caspian, the formation of the !^osphorus and the Dar-
danelles took place through which the waters of Aralo- Caspian
penetrated intoEagean Sea.

The limit of soutern littoral of Propontus was already drawn
since Lower Teriary and Transition. But the Black Sea had not
yet received its northern limit, which appeared after the emer-
sion of Southern Russia with characteristic Aralo-Caspian de-
posits. Probably the emersian of this side accompanied with
many movements of oscillation and resulted in the remarkable
redressment of the beds of dififerent regions of which the Crimea
was composed.

During the last phases of pliocene period, Asia Minor had re-
ceived most of its littoral outlines which possess to-day. But the
interior of the peninsula was covered by locustrine basins. So the
fresh water sediments were predominating in Pliocene. On ac-
count of trachytic eruption in the Pliocene a great number of
species of marine molluscs are perished in Anatolia. The pul-
verulent ejections of this eruptive rocks resulted in an enormous
beds of tufifs, known as Diatomaceous forhiation.

ERUPTIVE ROCKS.

Ultra-B.\sic. Harzburgite. Tauric region (Lake Van),
Chorokh zone (Kop Mountain), Central Plateau (Elmalidere,
Palandoken, Gugoghlan).

Lherzolite. Gokcha region (Karaman, Katch Bulack), Cho-
rokh zone (Kop Mountain), Central plateau (Khinis Bastok Val-
ley; Alimur).

Limburgite. West Karabagh.

Basic. Hypersthene — Gabbro; Gokcha region (Karaman,
Sarialpas).

Hyperstene — Olivine — Gabbro: Central plateau (Elmali-de^
reh).

Diabase: Gokcha region (Beikaraman) ; Ea.st Karabagh

92 MINERAL RESOURCES

(Chirchan, Shalapli), West Karabagh (Katar), Central Plateau
(Elmalidere).

Quartz-diabase: Gokcha region (Sarialpas, Kabagtepa).

Bronzite-diabase : East Karabagh (Shalapli).

Hornblende-diabase: Thrialitic region (Arjevan Mts.)

West Karabagh (Migri), Chorokh zone (Sipikor), Central
plateau (Palandoken, Shatin Mt.).

Olivine-diabase : Thrialitic region (Keilissi, Koshkaro),
(Kiavturatal, Gujarettal), Gokcha region, Murov Mt. Khatch
Bulak) ;East Karabagh (Dumy, Karadagly) ; Central Karabagh
(Basarkent, Algok, West Karabagh (Dorseli, Askelun, Purunti) ;
Central plateau (Dorseli, Askelun purunti) ; Central plateau
(palandoken, Jermik, Sivan).

(a) With ophitic augite. East Karabagh (Shusha, Jamiat)
Chasi, Akhbulakh), Central plateau (Akhalkalaki, ElmaUdereh,
Muradtal).

(b) With subophitic augite; Somkatian region (Akhtala,
Algettal), Gokcha region (Maral Mt.), Central Karabagh (Ka-
ragol). Central plateau (Akhalkalak, Shubaret, Ani, Palandoken
Pasin, Muradtal).

Olivine-Basalt with Granular-Augite.

(a) Olivine basalt. Pontic region (Kurele) ; Thrialitic re-
gion (Borjom) ; Central Karabagh (Shipkergol) ; Central plateau
(Muradtal- Bularik), Bingol plateau (Bastok Valley, Gugoghlan
near Gumgum).

(b) OlivineBronzite-Basalt. Central Karabagh (Gerjusi),
Central plateau (Khartmir).

(c) Olivine-Hornblende-Basalt. Central Karabagh (Gerjusi),
Central plateau (Khamur).

(d) Andesitic-Olivine-Basalt: Imeritic region (Sikari),
Thrialitic regon (KentzikJaro near Tiflis), Central plateau (Palan-
doken, Deveh Boyun). Bingol plateau (Tandurek, Tutakh).

Olivine-Basalt-Tuff. Imeritic region. (Abastuman) Thriali-
tic region (Kentzikaro) ; Central plateau (Bingol plateau, Sheikh-
Orakratar).
Alkaline basalt :

(a) Leucite Tephrite. Pontic Region (Trebisond).

(b) Nepheline Tephrite. Central Karabagh (Gerjusy).

(c) Sodalite Basalt. Thrialitic region (Sanislo).

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 93

Medium Acidic. Quartz-Mica Diorite : Pontic region (Meir-
imandereh (Asforos Valley), Gokcha region (Maratal), West
Karabagh (near Migri, Aldara), Chorokh zone (Golviren, Kho-
shabpunar), Central plateau (near Gopal).

Quartz-Mica-Augite-Diorite ; Pontic Region (Meserch, Ka-
sikli), Gokcha region (Agalagan Mt. Syzismadini, Ulutram
Shamkhortal), West Karabagh (near Migri), Daralogoz zone
(near Karmir Vank), Central plateau (Tunus).

Augite-Diorite : West Karabagh (Aldara).

Mica' Porphyrite: Pontic region (near; Hamiskoi-Esselji),
Gokcha region (Gokcha Mt.) West Karabagh (Chundurtal).

Hornblende Porphyrite: Pontic region (Asfaros Valley),
Somkatian region (Lialvar Mt.), East Karabagh Agjeken, West
Karabagh (Njuvadi).

Horrft)lende'-Pyroxene-Porphyrite : Pontic Region (Ardasa
Bashkilissa, Ostuk, Kesishkoi) ; Pambak region (Akta in San-
gatal).

Pyroxene-porphyhite :Pontic» region (near Khertvis), Som-
katian (Usunlar, Debedatal), East Karabagh (Dumi), Central
Karabagh (Tatev, West Karabagh (Airy Mt. Katar), Central
plateau (Tunus, Sor, Adeljivas).

Feldspar Porphyrite: Somkatian region (Akhtala), Gokcha
region (Gokcha Mt.), West Karabagh (Katar).

Mica Andesite : Central plateau (Bingol Plateau).

Hornblende Andesite: Pontic region (Trebizond Meirimande-
reh), Gokcha region (Zinjirli Mt.), Central Karabagh (near
Hassan Kala near Kharassan).

Tuff: Pontic region (Ali Meser), Thrialitic region and Gok-
cha region.

Pyroxene Andesite: Pontic region, Imeritic region, (Okus
Mt.), Thrialitic region (Kumis Borjom), East Karabagh (Ger-
gir), Central Karabagh (near Basarkent), Central Plateau (Lori,
Ararat, Takjaltu, Soganli, Palandoken, Eyerli, Madrak, Bingol
Mt., Alimur Sipan, Lake Nazik).

Tuflf : Pontic region (Mesereh Khan, Central plateau (Ararat,
Arguri).

Basic Augite Andesite : Pontic region (Esseli Riseh, Batum,
etc.), Imeritian (Abestuman), Thrialitic (Khertvis, Aspinsi, Bor-
jom, etc.) ; Somkatian (Lok) ; Gokcha (Lake Gokcha) ; Central

94 MINERAL RESOURCES

Karabagh (Tatev, etc.) West Karabagh (Katar) ; Central plateau
(Soganli, Kars, Armutli, Tandurek, Dumli Palandoken etc.).

Tuff: Imeritian, Thrialitic, Somkatic (Lok), Gokcha (Tog-
laja) ; East Karabagh, Central Karabagh (Central Karabagh
(Sabukh), Central plateau (Palandoken).

Acidic-Augite Andesite : Central Plateau (Kisvag).
Augite-Trachyte : Thrialitic region (Beden), Central plateau,
(Palandoken, Nimrud, etc.)

PyroxeneTrachyte : Central plateau (Samsar, Karmush).

Hornblende Trachyte: West Karabagh (Chundur), Central
plateau (Samsar).

Phonolite: Daralagoz zone (Garni).

Acidic. Muscovite Granite: Central plateau (Chermigan in,
Pasin).

Granitite: Pontic region (Meirimandereh), Somkatian region
(Lok), West Karabagh (near Sadarak) ; Central plateau (near
Gopal).

Hornblende Granite: Pontic region (near Ardasa), West
Karabagh (near Ordabad).

Pyroxene-granite: Gokcha region (Dashkessan).

Homblende-Granite-Porphyry : West Karabagh (Kapujik).

Quartz Porphyry : Thrialitic region, Somkatian region, West
Karabagh (Airy Mt., Katar).

Felsitic Porphyry: Somkatic region (Karagaya) ; Gokcha re-
gion (Khatch bulak).

Rhyolite : Thrialitic region (Beden), Gokcha region, East Ka-
rabagh; \Yest Karabagh; Central plateau (Kars, Kharput, Po-
landoken ) .

Tuff : Pontic region, Thrialitic region Somkatian region, Gok-
cha region.

Dasite : Pontic region, Gokcha region. East Karabagh, Central
Karabagh, ^^'est Karabagh, Central plateau (Polandoken).

Anatolia.

Eruptive rocks of Anatolia occupy a considerable area which
in no other countries could probably be seen at the same pro-
portion. Among those trachytes, diorites and pyroxene- por-
phyries come first; syenites, granites, serpentines and diorites

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 95

come second, basalts and eurites occupy the third place in im-
portance.

The trachytes represent a particular agglomeration in the west-
ern part of the peninsula covering the whole western littoral.
This series goes under the Eagean and reappears again forming
trachytic islands as Santorin. The trachyte of Anatolia is por-
ous and rich in oligoclase and vitreous feldspar, as the trachytes
of Cape Karabouroun, Smyrna, Afion-Karabissar, Mount Arge-
aus, Nevshehr, Nigde, Karadagh, etc.

The trachytes of Anatoia exhibit a remarkable phenomena in
its topographical distribution having been frequently associated
with saline lakes. The vast group of trachyte of Mount Arge-
aus is not only situated in the vicinity of Touz-Geullu, but it
occupies a lake of this nature in its ancient home since the
Jivah Geul came into existence at the southern foot of Argeaus.
The trachyte cone of Karabounar, is very remarkable by its
crater, rising in the middle of a depression covered by the masses
of salt.

The trachytes of Anatolia belong to different ages and the dura-
tion looks to be from Cretaceous to Upper Tertiary, or per-
haps to Upper Quartemary. The trachytes in the regions be-
tween Heraclea and Bartan, and between Angora and Mourtad-
Sou valley are posterior to Cretaceous ; but the trachytes found
between Kysbeli and Hipsala, between Bolat and Gune and in
the valley of Kastamouni are anterior to Eocene. They are
sometimes before and sometimjes after the Upper Tertiary la-
custrine deposits. Trachytes of Elma-Dagh are before, but the
trachytes existing in the vicinity of Smyrna, between the Kebsid
and Bagaditch, and in the districts of Kalburdji, etc., are after
the Upper Tertiary lacustrine deposits.

The dolerites are very intimately related to the trachytes and
pass in one another; as in the regions between Niksar and Sele-
yailasi, in Koili Hissar, in Samson, in Ala-Dagh, between Moon-
doorlu, and in the valley of Alan Sou. The dolerites comprise
also same periods beginning from Cretaceous up to Upper Ter-
tiary. The dolerites during Creaceous have disturbed the de-
posits of Amasia district. They are decidedly anterior to the
nummulitic deposits of Samson, to the Miocene deposits of the
regions comprised between the Hipsala and Tokat, and to the

96 MINERAL RESOURCES

Upper Tertiary lacustrine deposits of Beibazar Valley.

The dolerites together with the trachytes and basalts have ef-
fected the rupture of Bosphorus by only one stroke. The nature
of eruptive rocks spread over this region, reveals an alternative
phase of repose and activity from Lower to Upper Tertiary.

Pyroxene-Porphyries occur particularly in the eastern part of
Anatolia in intimate relation with the syenites and granites which
have disturbed the Lower Tertiary deposits.

Syenites and granites pass frequently in one another. They
are only distinguished mineralogically from each other. Syenite
is very extensive in Anatolia. In many points of the country
both eruptives are posterior to the Lower Tertiary as the re-
gions comprised between Alizy and Yozgat, where it forms veins
traversing the calcareous rocks, in the Bereketli Maden, Utch-
Kapou-Dagh, Ak-Dagh-Maden, and between Ala-shehr and Yoz-
gat, etc. The case is same for the majority of the massive syen-
ites surrounding the northeastern border of grand saline dis-
trict of Lyaconia.

The serpentine rocks occupy only a subordinate position be-
tween the other eruptives of Anatolia. Serpentine contains
more or less dialage sometimes pikrolith, bronzite, saussurite, etc.
Serpentines with dialage are noticed by Tchihatchefif, in the Kor-
kom-Sou, and a link of Hypersthenite in the Geuk-Sou district.
In the district of Beldjeis the serpentine rocks are porous and
undulated on the surface. The calcareous rocks between Ged-
jik and Dalaman are subjected to an appreciable modification in
contact with the serpentine. The serpentines in the district
of Angora form the current itself, while near the Amasia it is
intimately associated with the dolerites of Souslou-Ova. The
thermal sources of Troad, and igneous phenomena of Lycia have
their home in the serpentine.

The stratigraphic action of serpentine upon the sedimentary
rocks has very ostensible in Lycia, Pisidia, Aratch (Paphlagon-
ia), in dislocating violently the Lower Tertiary stratified forma-
tions.

The eruption of serpentine have taken place in different inter-
vals of time, because alternating activity and repose are noticed
in some places. The deposits of Araratch valley is posterior,
and the deposits of Kastamounai valley little further, is an-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 97

terior to Eocene. Same way in the southern Pontus, between
Kysbeli and Hipsala, between Hipsala and Khamourli, the ser-
pentine eruption precedes not only the Lower Tertiary, but
also the Cretaceous, as in the valley of Euphrates. The rest is
probably anterior to the Miocene deposits with a few excep-
tions, as in Lycia and Khorzoun.

The serpentine of Hadjiman-Yaila is rich in the minerals of
iron and copper. In the serpentines found in the vicinity of
Boulgar-Dagh exists a deposit of oligiste iron, while in Lycia
it contains all the mineral substances. Same way in Anti-Taurus
the beds of oligiste iron and red hemitite are found in contrast
with the serpentine.

The serpentine eruptive rocks, among others, are recognized
the most metalliferous except the syenite which is considered
rich in Alunite. The trachytes, dolerites, pyroxene porphyries,
eurites, basalts etc., rarely contain the usefully exploitable min-
eral substances.

The diorite is uniform in its minrealogic composition. It often
lies with the basalt, as in Bashkoi (Argeaus), sometimes with
pyroxene porphyry, as in Agatch-Bashi, and sometimes pass in
the diabase as in Akserai. The diorites belong mostly to Upper
Tertiary, marking often the separation of Tertiary from Quar-
ternary.

The Basalts in Anatolia often offer an imperceptible transition
to the trachytes and dolerites, as in Argeaus, Valley of Kirmizi-
Chai, in between Almous and Yousouf-Oghlou, and do not
play an important role. They are anterior to the Middle Ter-
tiary, as in the districts of Eschen-Kevi Gediz, and sometimes
posterior, as in the Gurun, Manjoulik, etc.

The eurite and the quartzose porphyry, is found often inti-
mately relating to trachytes and basalts. The eurites of Ana-
tolia are unfortunately situated in the middle of a system the
age of which is not determined.

The trachytes, dolerites, porphyries, basalts and eurites of
Anatolia are sometimes poured out in elastic or pasty condition,
or sometimes more or less fluid, both from craters or fissures.

The most recent plutonic manifestations are , resulted in the
dislocation of volcanic tuffs, the redressment of the trachytic
masses posterior to their discharge, and the upheaval of many

98 MINERAL RESOURCES

points of the western Thrace and AnatoHan peninsula.

Actually, the volcanic tuffs of Anatolia, occupies a wide area,
and evidently, related to the most remote geological epoch, con-
taining the living species of lacustrine diatomaceous animals.
In spite of their remote age, tuffs exhibit in the disposition of
their beds, the most curious example of redressment or folding;
as in the tuffs occuring between the Bergama and Dere Koi, in
the districts of Guile, Bolat, Tchandarlik, Bashbouran Koi, Ezder-
oun, in between the Biyad and Eski Karahissar, in the Evdjiler
valley, where the tuffs alternate with compact trachytes.

If the stratigraphic conditions of volcanic tuffs indicate a re-
cent phenomena, the end of Tertiary or the beginning of Quar-
ternary, then the same conclusion could be drawn for many
trachyte eruptions existing to-day. So, the upheaval posterior
to the out pouring would be attributed to the anomalous position
of certain trachyte masses in the district of Symma, where the
most recent masses, which repose upon the lacustrine deposits,
contain Helix and Unio.

PART II.

NON-METALLIC MINERALS.

COAL.

The occurence of coal has been reported from a large number
of localities. In only one instance has mining been carried on
in any manner compatible with the demands of modern con-
sumption. Aside from this, work has been confined to desultory
attempts that were scarcely adequate to meet even the limited
local requirements. In no case can technical data regarding the
extent, depth or persistence of the seams be had. The present
contribution will therefore be necessarily limited to an enumera-
tion of the localities at which the fuel is known to exist.

The well defined divisions will be adopted in the classification
of the various deposits listed beow.

ANATOLIA. — The north-westernmost projection of Asia
Minor immediatey south-east of the Dardanelles, forms part of
a district wherein lignite deposits have been worked in a num-
ber of localities. The formations of this district can also be
traced to the north on the adjoining European coast of the Mar-
mora. The lignite beds occur mostly in Tertiary lacustrine de-
posits and appear to belong to a zone of transition between the
Miocene and the Pliocene. In the Aegean Sea the same grade
of coal is found in the island of Mytelene as well as in the
island of Lemnos, where it was mined in 1875.

The best known of these deposits is worked at Manjilik. The
seam outcrop here for a distance of a Km. They are operated
by the owners of the nearby Balia lead mines. The product is
used as fuel for an electric power-station feeding the smelters
and workings.

Some lignite is also found near Lampsacus, but as yet has not
been mined.

In the Troad, lignite is extracted near Edrimid. The fuel is
transported to the seaport of Akchai where it is slacked along
the water front and sold in small quantities.

100

MINERAL RESOURCES

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA loi

Farther south, at a short distance from Soma, the terminal
of a branch Hne from Manissa, a good quantity of this coal has
been mined on a small scale.

Near Panderma, at about 4 Km. from Tchamak-dagh, some
exploration work was undertaken about 25 years ago in the
Mesepsif Valley. The following sequence was determined in
this locality.

1. A basal igneous complex, the upper zone of which consisted
of a highly siliceous flint-like band of rock averaging 2.5 meters
in width.

2. Thick beds of marls with which lignite seams, varying in
thickness between 2 to 0.86 meters intercalated. The coal be-
longs to a high grade lignitic variety. Samples of it gave the
following analysis :

Volatile matter 32.6%
Fixed carbon 45.4%
Ash 12.6%

The Tertiary succession in this district is best revealed by the
section afforded in the gorge of the Dovantzi river. The basal
igneous is overlain by thick beds of tufa, above and lying con-
formably with which, clayey marl beds occur, with lignite seams
about 0.30 m. in thickness.

This series underlies relatively thick strata of bituminous marls.
The clay above or below the lignite-bearing strata can be easily
detected by large blocks of jasper and chalcedony that stand out
from its mass.

West of this region, lignite outcrops are known at Demir-tash,
2 Km. north of Broussa, as well as at Ghemlik.

Mining was also carried on formerly at Tchaidere near Bile-
jik and at Geuy near Seuyud.

The most easterly extension of this Tertiary lignite is found
in the mountains environing Tchai near Afioun Karahissar.
Seams have been discovered here at an altitude of 1840 meters,
lying over calcareous conglomerates and capper by clay beds.
The thickness of the coal attains 2 Meters. Practically every one
of the above named deposits is susceptible of development in
order to supply local requirements.

The southwestern coast of Asia Minor with its hinterland does
not appear to be devoid of coal. Seams are known near Makry

102 MINERAL RESOURCES

in the foothills of the Eljikdagh Mountain. In the province of
Smyrna, lignite beds exist at Gulhissar Milas, Sokia, Aidin,
Kiosk, Nazilli, Scala Nuova and Keramos. The Sokia and Na-
zilli beds have been developed for local use.

The Heraclea coal-field is at present the best developed in
Anatolia (See figure). It occupies a belt of about 60 Km. in
length along the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea between the sea-
ports of Heraclea and Filios. The Town of Heraclea itself lies
at a distance of 135 nautical miles from Constantinople. The
coal-beds outcrop near the coast and are known to extend farther
than the 8 km. inland. It is believed, however, that they strike

The Heraclea Ccnl Field

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SHADED AREA REPRESENTS KNOWN COAL.
DOTTED AREA REPRESENTS PROBABLE COAL.

south-easterly from the eastern boundary of the district to which
mining operations have been confined and that they may be re-
encountered at a greater distance from the sea-shore beyond.
The coast facing this section of the Black Sea is precipitous.
Narrow valleys and ridges parallel each other at right angles to
the shore line. The elevation of the land immediately fronting
the water does not exceed 60 m. The altitude increases gradu-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 103

ally southwards until a maximum of 500 m. is attained at a
distance of about 3 km. from the coast. Here long chains of hills
with a roughly east-vvest trend, occur.

The stretch of country extending from Heraclea eastwards for
a distance of 175 km. along the coast may be considered as a
geological province on the basis of the presence of three long
and narrow parallel bands of Carboniferous rocks, which com-
price Culm, Lower Carboniferous limestones and Upper Car-
boniferous Coal-Measures. These bands have a general N. 70°
E. trend. The country lying between them consists of nodular
calcareous beds, chiefly Caprotina limestones.

The unity of the geological sequence appears " to have been
established by Paleontological as well as lithological data. The
strata can be classified as follows in ascending succession:

1. A basal Carboniferous limestone containing Productus gig-
anteous, Syringophyllum and other Polyps.

2. Coal-bearing Measures containing Sphenopteris Baeumleri,
Neuropteris gigantea and Neuropteris Schlehani. Above and
lying unconformably, the Cretaceous is represented in beds of
great thickness by:

3. Greyish crystalline limestone with Requenia gryhoides and
Toncasia.

4. A complex of fairly fine-grained, dark colored, clayey and
sandy strata.

The correlation of this sequence with the Cretaceous of the
Balkans has been established. The latter is itself the prolonga-
tion of the Alpine zone on which outcrops of Carboniferous strata
appear as at Heraclea. This similarity in the geological rela-
tionship prevailing on the southwestern coast of the Black Sea
and in a portion of Central Europe, may have a wide significance
which does not lie, however, within the scope of these notes.

Dififertiation of the fossil flora found at Heraclea leads to a
local subdivision into three stages of corresponding to the Culm,
Westphalian and Stephanian stages of the European Carboni-
ferous. These are, respectively, the Aladjaaghzy or lower stage,
the Cozlou or middle stage, and the Caradon or upper stage.
The first two are economically the most important but the best

I04 MINERAL RESOURCES

coal is derived from the middle stage.

The western boundary of the basin is determined by a long
fault line occurring at Kiosseaghzy at a distance of about lo
km. east of Heraclea. The entire measures appear to have sunk
in depth at this point. Some coal is v^ron here from narrow
seams which can be correlated with the Cozlou stage. The valleys
of Kiretchlik, Chaushaghzy and Ilisou appear immediately be-
yound. Within their limits, the Aladjaaghzy series can be first
observed. The Cozlou depression lies about 20 km. farther east
and is the seat of the widest and iTiost actively exploited veins
of the entire district. From this last point the Coal-Measures
are detected about 2 km,, farther east, to Domooz, where they
assume a gradual southerly stike inland. Cutting across the
Zoongooldak valley, where their width attains 5 km., they ex-
tend beyond Tchatalaghzy valley to Sooksou. Mining ceases
at this locality but coal is known to occur as far east as Djide.

The Aladjaaghzy stage is best represented at the locality bear-
ing that name. The strata appear first at about 0.5 Km. west of
the settlement. They have a general east-west strike and dip
from 10° to 30° south. Fifteen seams of an average thickness
of about 0.75 m. are distinguished by different names. Although
they are considered locally as different beds, the profound fault-
ing to which the region has been subjected, subsequently to the
formation of the coal, tends to confirm belief in the identity of
many of the seams. The uniformity of their structure has helped
the unmethodical native to carry on work with relative ease.
The same measures have been developed to a less degree, in the
valley of Kiretchlik, as well as at Tchaoushaghzy.

A zone of transition between the Aladjaaghzy and the Coz-
lou measures is revealed by the presence of a number of almost
vertical seams. Their thickness is the same as that of seams
below. They occur along a double eastwest line of faulting,
which also constitutes the southern extremity of the coal-basin,
since beyond it, to the south, only Carboniferous limestones are
encountered.

These vertical seams therefore, indicate the beginning of the
Cozloo stage, which is best represented in the valleys of Zoon-
gooldak, Kilimli and Tchatalaghzy. The strata in this zone dip

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 105

respectively to the north and south so as to form an anticlinal
fold which is plainly discernible in the valley of Kilimli. Twenty-
five veins are distingueshed locally, but the absence of any de-
tailed geological survey of the district and the lack of maps pre-
clude adequate differentiation. The seams have an average thick-
ness of 1.5 m.

A possible zone of transition marks again the upper level of
the Cozlou stage. It is best seen in the vicinity of the Kiosseaghzy
fault. Two systems of seams occur here and are known as the
Tsamly and Beylik groups. The former comprises fairly thick
seams some of which attain a maximum width of 2 m. Their
dip is northerly, many being almost vertical. The Tsamly sys-
tem can be traced to the very shore, at the village bearing that
name. It extends over a distance exceeding 4 km. in length, to
Camdilly valley.

The Caradon stage appears above this zone of transition. Eight
seams are distinguished as belonging to this series. They have
been worked at Caradon where they are well developed, as well
as at Tchatalaghzy and Cozlou. Their thickness varies between
I m. and 1.5 m. Beds of slate of an average width of 1.5 m.
are intercalated between the seams. The Amasra basin, com-
prising the Tchatalaghzy district, also appear to form part of
the same series. Five seams of similar average width are known
here. It is also surmised that the outcrops east of the town of
Amasra near Capoosou constitute the prolongation of this group.
In addition a number of outcrops observable in the valley of
Ilsou near Sefedler village probably bear the same relationship.

The coal mined at Heraclea belongs to the bituminous variety.
It is slightly higher in ash than the corresponding average type
from European basins. It may be divided into two classes: (i)
that obtained from the veins of the middle series, containing
from 30 to 40% volatile matter; (2) that mined from the lowest
stage containing from 40 to 45% volatile matter. The first is
excellent for coking purposes, while the Aladjaaghzy product
is used chiefly in the manufacture of illuminating gas and for
steam generation.

The following table shows the annual output for the entire
region :

io6 MINERAL RESOURCES

Annual Production of the Heraclea Coal-Field.

Years Metric Tons

1884 70,997 1898 211,514

1885 80,129 1899 253,830

1886 88,892 1900 390,428

1887 97,846 1901 341,221

1888 109,409 1902 364,206

1889 146,366 1903 453.807

1890 137,282 1904 518,874

1891 166,230 1905 592,874

1892 168,727 1906 610,400

1893 173,456 1907 625,000

1894 159,687 1908 650,000

1895 147,445 1909 675,757

1896 166,170 1910

1897 122,890 191 1 750,000

ARMENIA. — A large number of coal seams of all grades are
known to occur in the region extending east of the 34th meridian
east of Greenwich to the Russian and Persian boundaries. Lig-
nite was reported by Cuinet from Tavshandagh Mountain in the
vicinity of Mersivan. The same observer noted coal outcrops
in the immediate neighborhood of Tokat as well as in a district
lying 60 m. southeast of that town. Outcrops have also been
detected near the town of Sivas south of the previous named
locality. In the northern portion of Mamouretulaziz, coal is
known in a band, wthich practically extends from its eastern to
its western boundary. The localities are Tchemishguedsek,
where the coal is stated to be of good quality, Zanfranik, Dersim
and Derstek. At Shengyah also, near Bailbourt, lignite occurs.

In the Erzerum province an attempt has been made to mine
some lignite in the past few years. The seams are imbedded
in the Upper Eocene. They are well developed at Kheneke, near
Migri in the valley of the Arax, as well as east, in the Kashkal-
dagh Mountain. The annual production of the different locali-
ties is distributed as follows :

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 107

PRODUCTION OF THE ERZERUM DISTRICT. .

Locality Production

1910 1911

Kheneke (Narman) 1,300 Metric tons. 450 Metric tons.

Vartik (Trejan) 86 " "

Kukurtlu (Erzerum) .... 120 " " 50 " "

Sivishlu (Erzerum) 860 " " 45 "

Tazegul (Erzerum) 20 " "

Charel (Erzerum) ....... 20 " "

Proceeding southwards from Erzerum the occurence of de-
posit of bituminous coal is reported from the mountains lying
west of the Mush plain. Southeast of the last named locality a
hard variety of coal resembling anthracite is found near Erooh
in the province of Bitlis. The coal is stated to occur in abund-
ance in this region between the villages of Tchemak and Dergal.

The same variety of coal is found farther west near Palu.
The meagre reports obtainable from this relatively inaccessible
town lack definiteness and merely suggest the possible existence
of an anthracite basin in this district.

West of the Persian boundary, the province of Van seems to
have been favored by nature with ample reserves of fuel. At
Kaskhale in the Hekiari district a number of lignite seams 0.15
m. in width are known. Near Tcough Pass, at about two days
horseback ride from Nordooz, the same coal occurs again. At
Aktchai on the Karasou river and about 24 km. from the harbor
of Cheraker on Lake Van, a number of seams occur. Their
width occasionally attains I m.

CILICIA AND TAURIC REGIONS.— The existence of an-
thracite coal is reported from the vicinity of Beiroot-dagh Moun-
tain, where iron has been mined since times immemorial by the
natives of the town of Zeitoon. This region has been perhaps,
least visited of all by travellers in Asia Minor. It seems strange
that the neighborhood of the iron mines should not have stimu-
lated exploitation of the coal.

Near Sis, betw*een Adana and Zeitun, anthracite float has
been detected in the valley of Jihun River.

io8 MINERAL RESOURCES

Two extensive Miocene lignite deposits, one in Kilissejik-Koi
and the other in Yailajik-Koi, both in the vicinity of Aintab,
were worked for a short time in 191 1. The coal was seamed
with thin layers of clays, and intercalated with iron carbonate.
A local company of fifty merchants of Aintab City was or-
ganized to exploit this coal. But on account of no facilities of
transportation, and on the declaration of Balkan war the opera-
tion was suspended.

Coal was mined about half a century ago in the northern sec-
tion of the ancient province of Harpoot, about 45 km. east of
Jesireh. The product was used for a while on river boats ply-
ing on the navigable sections of the Tigris.

In the lower Eocene foothills of the Taurus, north of Begil,
between Akra and Zab, are good bituminous coal deposits in
marls. They extend farther northward in the same line at Her-
bol and Segisik north of Jadi .Mountain and in the district of
Nurdus at Mervanen.

Similar beds are met within Taurus northwestward from Diar-
bekr, for example at Palu and at Chermak and Komur-Khan
near the Euphrates.

Furthermore, coal is found east of Van, namely between Ha-
zara and Rahmin, at Aghazuchai.

Coal is obtained at Sillir and at or on Kumach (Komur) and
exists on the southside of the Merjan Mountain in the Dersim.

CAUCASIAN ARMENIA.— Brown coal and ligneous anthra-
cite, suitable for technical purposes in beds of various ages are
found in Caucasian Armenia. In the Migri Valley (west Kara-
bagh) a brown coal is used as fuel. A Cretaceous brown coal
exists at Bolshya Keity, 10.5 km. from Alexandropol.

Brown coal of lower Eocene is found in the basin of the
lovVer Araxes (west Karabagh and Karadagh) and is mined
moreover in the basin of the upper Frat ; for example, at Kirkut
in Miriam Mountain. In the Chorokh basin coal mines exist at
Karakana and Hortuk, south of Ispir and at Liesgaf, not far
from Tortum, besides these there are some on the Lower Chorokh
at Borchka. Brown coal often of anthracite-like origin exists
in the Oligocene of the Imeritian and Trialitic region of too
great amount of pyrite having not appreciable worth.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 109

FUTURE PROSPECTS.— From the foregoing review, can
be summed up the following conclusions. In the first place, it
is probable that the output from Heraclea will increase at a
somewhat higher rate than hitherto, owing to the settlement of
the political difficulties. The probable development of the east-
ern section of this coal district, namely the Amasra-Djide re-
gion, will also contribute to augment the yield of the basin.
In this connection the need of topographical and geological map-
ping is keenly felt at Heraclea itself as well as in the neighbor-
ing seats of exploitation. Ralli's work on faulting will have to
be supplemented by a detailed study of this important feature.

In the second place there exists a possibility of the development
of numerous lignitic beds to supply the needs of local consump-
tion. The annual production of this variety of coal has increased
from 15,000 metric tons in 1898 to 32,000 metric tons in recent
years. The industrial awakening of the country will eventually
bring about a larger consumption of lignite.

Lastly, there exists the possibility of new districts being opened
up. The development of an anthracite basin near Palu, and in
the valleys of Sihun and Jihun Rivers, in Adana district, may
eventually result from a thorough exploration of the region.
The building of railroads through these sections of the country
may constitute a factor of no mean consequence in the growth of
the mining industry.

The quantity of coal consumed annually in Turkey, and such
of the neighboring countries as are geographically dependent on
it (Egypt for instance) can be safely reckoned at about 5,000,000
tons. The annual production of Turkish coal has been less than
1,000,000 tons.

PETROLEUM.

Although no complete explorations have yet been made, there
is oil, or the indications of oil, in a number of places in Ana-
tolia and Armenia.

Traces of oil are recorded at Cherkose-Deli, above Lake Isnik,
southeast of the Sea of Marmora.

Boring for oil has been carried out near Ganos, Myriofito, and
Hara, on the Sea of Marmora, with results which are reported
to be of an encouraging character.

no MINERAL RESOURCES

Attempts to sink oil wells have been made at Mughla, south
of Aidin City, and at Alexandretta.

In Kovak on the southeastern coast of Anatolia, north of Cape
Chelidonia, a considerable oil occurs. This locality is the famous
Chemaera of the Greek stories. Here gases are continuously dis-
anged from fissures and are known to have been burning for
2800 years at least, for the phenomenon was described by Hesiod
before the time of Homer. Tchihatcheff, the Russian . Geologist,
states that the gas is emitted from fissures in serpentine intru-
sive into limestone. It is interesting to note in this connec-
tion, that burning fountains of gas were long known in Baku
oil fields, before the discovery of oil there. There is also on the
coast of Albania (east shore of Adriatic) the locality of Polino,
near Durezzo, where gas emanates from the summit of a hill,
and often accidentally takes fire. The hill is said to be igneous,
but the existence at the foot of it of an asphalt spring suggests
an organic rather than a volcanic origin for the gas. Petroleum
also has been reported from here and seems to have been ex-
ported on a small scale. This hill was the ancient Apollinia,
and here the priestess of the famed Delphic Oracle sat and in-
haled the fumes of gas till dazed, when her words were regarded
as inspired.

It is there, an open question as to whether the escaping gas of
the Chimaera (the modern Turkish name is "Yanar task" — stone
that burns) is of organic origin, and indicates oil below, or is
volcanic, but the chances are perhaps, in favor of the former
alternative, especially as the igneous rocks of the locality, (al-
tered peridotite) is not one that indicates recent volcanic activity.

As is perhaps most often the case, there seems to be a gen-
eral connection between petroleum and natural asphalt in these
territories.

In a general belt running southeastward from the eastern
part of Armenia, on the Black Sea, down to Persian Gulf, it
seems likely that important oil fields .can be developed. This is
said to be the continuation of Caucasian fields.

Two important localities on this line, one in the vicinity of
Erzerum, and the other near Van are already knowti to the
American Standard Oil Company.

A spring of bitumen rises from the Eocene limestone within

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 1 1 1

the cidatrel of Van, and oil is reported at Parghiri, whilst in the
Muzur-Dagh range, on the Upper Euphrates, the Cretaceous lime-
stones are locally charged with asphalt, and at Samasata or Son-
eisat, 70 miles southward, Plimy mentions the occurence of maltha
or rock-tar. Petroleum is reported as found near Surmeneh, in
Trebizond.

An extensive oil-field ranges from Hit on the Euphrates, for
200 miles upward to El Deir, and thence to the northeast, to
Herboul near Zakhu, and eastward from this line to Beyond the
Persian frontier. At many points in this vast area petroleum
and gas exude with their usual concomitants, salt and sulphure-
ous waters, often thermal, from the Miocene saline gypsiferous
marls and limestones. The oil-wells of Hit, Jibbah, and Kerkuk
are of great antiquity; those of Herboul, Hammam, Ali, Tel-
Kiara, El Fahla, Tuz-Kharmatli, Kifri, and Mendeli are of less
celebrity but possibly of greatly ultimate importance.

Oil bearing strata in Caucasian Armenia outcrop in many
places along the Baku-Batum pipe line as in Gori, northwest of
Tiflis, in Sharopan, south of Kutais, in Ozorget, on the Black
Sea coast, north of Batum. Oil bearing strata outcrop also in
many localities in the valleys of Kur and Araxes, as in Mana-
suck, Karakilissa, and Nakhitchevan district near Shah. These
oil fields are not yet exploited and are reserved for future de-
velopment.'

The Caucasus is a recently (geologically) elevated range of
mountains. It is at least newer than the petroliferous beds oc-
curing in or contiguous to it, for productive oil-bearing strata
are found at a great height on its flanks. At Grosny the oil is
obtained from the summit of a range of hills, where the anti-
cline is very acute, and the prolific strata only approach the
surface, to a workable depth, within a very narrow width. An
enormous area is covered by pertoliferous, which crop out at
intervals over practically the whole base of the Caucasus, but
of course only lie at a depth that allows of profitable boring,
i. e., are prolific enough from a commercial point of view, over
a comparatively small fraction of the whole. The enormous
deposits extend beneath the sea (from the Apshiron Peninsula)
where it is impossible to estimate their value or extent, and re-
appear in the Transcaspian provinces, which are yet only very

112

MINERAL RESOURCES

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 113

imperfectly explored.

The Chatma Oil Field: The District known by the name of
Chatma, lies about 50 miles from Tiflis. The nearest station is
Poili, situated on the Transcaucasian Railway, about 300 miles
from Baku and 260 miles from Batum, a station which is only
connected with Chatma by a miserable track of some 18 to 20
miles long. The oil field is appoached by making a ji^ep ascent
from the railway and then following a series of plains shielded by
high bare mountains; but the soft calcareous ground is so cut
up with ravines, which traverse the plain in all directions, that
great delay is occasioned by fruitless journeys unless the regu-
lar track is severely followed. The Chatma plateau is an al-
most level plain, about 8 miles long by 3 miles wide, finaked
nearly all around by precipitous cliffs which impart to the re-
gion a irtost imposing upheaval; for the strata have been forced
into a vertical position, and on the flanks of the valley disin-
tegration has been forced and caused the harder beds compos-
ing the hills to stand out, well-defined from the general for-
mation.

Indications of oil are common along the cliffs, and not only
are beds of hard compact, black bitumen, which the local peas-
ants call coal, discernable, but there are deposits of highly dis-
colored oil sands, from which a Httle heavy oil exudes, and thick
deposits of Kir at the base of the cliffs, which can only have
originated from effusions of oil. In some places tiny evolu-
tions of oil and water may be traced oozing from cliffs, which
flow into shallow trenches excavated by the natives for its
reception from whence the floating oil is periodically skimmed
for employment in household operations. At the base of the
cliffs at the west of the valley the outcrop of an oil sand may
be traced for a long distance along the ground, and into this
a number of wells have been bored, by primitive hand-boring
appliances to a depth of 50 — ^150 feet, which have yielded small
quantities of black petroleum of a specific gravity exceeding 0.920.
The strata cannot be so readily traced in the centre of the plain
on account of the disturbed conditions of the surface material,
although where traces are visible the same acute angle is observ-
able, but as there are a number of mud volcanoes which con-
stantly eject mud and water contaminated with oil, one way

114 MINERAL RESOURCES

fairly assume that the oil-bearing beds continue across the pla-
teau. The verticality of the strata, exposing a broken edge to
the surface of the ground, naturally permits all the oil bearing
beds to expel their contents, so that little can be expeced from
such oil strata unless penetrated to a great depth.

The most likely spot to secure a fair production would be
near the apex of the anticline, or, in the event of there being
two or more species of these, so that unbroken and unexposed
strata may be tapped.

The oil field composing the four districts of Balakhany, Saboon-
tchy, Romany and Zabrat is situated on an almost level plateau
about 1/5 feet above the Caspian, or about 260 feet above
the ocean-level. The total area of the plateau under explora-
tion, comprising the four districts, is no more than 4 square
miles, 2560 acres. The oil field connected with Baku, which
lies about 8 miles to southwest, by railway having its destina-
tion in the village of Saboonchy, but thereis also a first-class
macadamized road leading from Baku, which is largely used
for the transport of oil-well requisites as the railway.

The plateau is sheltered on the northeast, east, south and south-
east by limestone rocks, which overlie the oil beds where they
dip down acutely. On the west and northwest, the oil beds out-
crop at the surface, and continue for may miles exposed on the
surface of the ground. From Romany towards the west there
is a steady rise of the strata, the dip being about i in 16; but
at Romany the dip is great and the angle of dip shown by the
overlying limestone is approximately correct, the angle is about
30" A section of the ground in a direct line between the Ro-
many and Bogboga, near the village of Balakhany will be very
nearly at right angles to the strike of the beds, and therefore,
will disclose the true dip of the formations.

There are 8 well-defined oil zones, separated from each other
by variable thickness of strata, that range between 70 feet and
150 feet; but below this the water sand is struck, which makes
it difficult to ascertain what oil lies beneath. The series of
sands which underlie the well known oil formations have been
penetrated to a depth of 400 feet, sometimes with good results
and sometimes without any reward, and although many of the
varieties of sand passed through are of the fine "blown" type

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 115

and deeply discolored by pertoleum, there appears to be much
difficulty in overcoming the. water and thoroughly testing the
sources at such a great depth.

Bibi-Eibat Oil Fields : This field is situated about 3 miles due
south from Baku, from whence all materials are carried by
road, as there is no railway connection. The valley which is
fringed by the sea on one hand, and by a semi-circle of almost
precipituous cliffs behind and around, has an area of about 1.6
square miles, i. e., 1024 acres of which only about 40 percent,
are under exploitation.

The formation of the Bibi-Eibat field partakes of the charac-
ter of a regular cone. On all sides except, perhaps, the sea
quarter, the strata descend, and where the limestones are reached
which cover the oil series, steep cliffs are produced that might
easily be mistaken for faults by a casual glance. The huge lime-
stone masses which surround the valley produce an imposing
spectacle. The oil strata do not slope acutely on sea quarter, for
there are evolutions of petroleum gas in the sea itself, and it is
reported that at one time such escapes were more prevalent.

The Binagadi Oil Field: For several years exploitation has
been conducted in a district to the west of Balakhany near the
village of Binagadi. The region has long been knokn to the oil-
bearing, but no active exploration vras commenced until an oil
prospector sank well, and struck an oil source in 1896. Since
that date other wells have been bored around the original site,
and further interest has been attracted to the place by the ap-
pearance of a small fountain, in 1901, which yielded about 100,-
000 poods of petroleum. The oil is very heavy, exceeding, gen-
erally 0.900 sp-gr., and the wells rapidly dry up when bailed.

The strata of district are similar to those of Balakhany, con-
sisting of calcareous clays, sandstones and petroliferous sands,
but the strata outcrop at the surface at an acute angle, and per-
mits the escape of gas from the strata might otherwise be
employed in expelling the oil. The prospect of attaining oil in
payable quantities, at a reasonable depth, are remote, although
deep boring might disclose the existence of prolific sands where
they are uninfluenced by the surface exporsures.

The situation of the Binagadi district is not unfavorable ly-
ing as it does only about 7 miles from the Backtown refineries

ii6 MINERAL RESOURCES

and the sea-shore, whilst the railway junction of Baladjari is
not more than two miles from the oil properties.

The Puta Oil District: A well-defined anticline sweeps all
around Baku, the apex of which concedes with the base of a
valley that follows the coastline for many miles after approach-
ing the western side of the Bibi-Eibat field. The Puta railway
station lies about 8 miles owing to the fact that he Trans-Cauca-
sian Railway keeps to the valleys in order to escape the limestone
range that divides Baku from the hinterland. The plain is per-
fectly devoid of vegetation, as a result of the escape of sulphur-
ous and other gases as well as salt water. In Winter, many
miles are rendered quite impassable by accumulations of water,
and in the Summer the heat and glare rival many parts of the
Sahara. The district has attracted more than superficial atten-
tion through its proximity to Baku, and as a result of the many
indications of oil that are everywhere apparent in some form or
other.

The beds forming the anticline have been forced into an al-
most vertical position, consequently exposing the f ractured-edges
of the strata on the surface of the plain, and in consequence for-
mations of divers characters may be recognized for long dis-
tances. Hills of asphalt have been formed in some places above
the vertical petroleum beds, whilst in other cases exudations of
gas only occur.

As far back as 1897, the Messrs. Nobel sank a boring near the
outcrop of one of the beds, and at a depth of a few hundred
feet a little flow of heavy oil was struck and the well until this
day discharges continuously a small quantity of thick black
oil, resembling tar in consistency and appea'rance. This land is
held in reserve.

KHORDALAN: — Khordalan is a small Tartar village lying
about 4 miles southwest of Binagadi and 7 miles northwest of
Baku. Indications of oil are prevalent everywhere in the vicinity
and the railway which passes close to the village, has been exca-
vated in the side of a hill where an excellent section of strata
is exposed to full view. The cutting actually passes through
strata wherein oil beds are interposed, from which a gentle
stream of heavy oil constantly flows and collects in trenches
provided for its reception at the base of the bank. The nature

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 117

of the soil is evidently more conducive to the growth of vegeta-
tion, for a coarse grass coats the earth and a little agriculture is
permissable. The Russian Petroleum and Liquid Fuel Company
who have been boring a well on a plot to the south of a hill
near the village of Khordalan, in the Spring of 1903, ,met with a
strong fountain which threw up a large quantity of sand and
oil at a moment when the tools were at work in the well, thus
causing their loss and leading to delay in the exploration. The
results to some degree satisfactory, do not yet justify the draw-
ing of any conclusion and fuller investigations must be con-
ducted to discover the practical worth of the field.

DIGGA, SARAI, etc. — A large area to the northeast, west
of Binagadi is known to be oil bearing from the frequency of
such phenomena as exudations of gas, oil and salt water, es-
capes of sulphurous gases, and prevalence of mud volcanoes.
Digga, Sarai, and other villages have transmitted their names to
districts which surround them, where large areas are laid out
and held under lease by many of the Baku Companies and by
private individuals.

In the intensely interesting region of the Caspian Sea, so many
phenomena of interest may be seen in operation around its shores,
that a description may be of value in assisting the reader to real-
ize some of the conditions that may have had a more or less
direct relation to the region of petroleum. The Caspian is an
inland sea, covering an area of from 170,000 to 180,000 square
miles, from which there is no outlet, the level of the water
being about 84 feet below the level of the Black Sea. The
Caspian is in reality the diminuative representative of the im-
mense expanse of ocean which at some time during the Tertiary
perod was connected with the Black Sea and Mediterranean, and
extended over a large area of Europe north-westward of the
Black Sea, and a still larger area of Asia to the east and south-
east of the Caspian. The Caspian was doubtless cut off from
the oceans to the west at the times that the Caucasian range was
thrust up, and from the oceans to the southeast during those
orographic changes which resulted in the Himalaya Mountains
and the highlands of Afganistan and Persia, so that any in-
formation that can be made to fix the period when the Cas-
pian was isolated from the oceans.

ii8 MINERAL RESOURCES

That connection with the open sea did once exist is proved
by the character of the dissolved salts in the water of the Cas-
pian, and by the fish which abound in the sea. Myriads of
fish accumjilate around the mouths of the rivers running into
the Caspian, and thousands of tons are annually caught and
forwarded to Russian rnarket, but many are, probably on ac-
count of the brackishness of the water, profoundly modified var-
ieties of ocean fishes, if not actually distinct species and indi-
genous to the Caspian. They are particularly of greasy nature.
The well known Caviar, for which the Caspian is famuos, is
simply the roe of the sturgeon, and this oily nature character-
izes many of the fish. Whether it has any bearing on the origin
of oil one is not yet prepared to say, but it is a fact worthy of
note.

The amount of water which flows into the Caspian Sea can-
not be less than 30,000,000 cubic feet per minute, on an average,
for measurements have shown that the Volga alone, which drains
nearly half a million square miles of land, discharges sometimes
as much as one and a half million cubic feet of water per second,
and besides this there are the Ural, Terek, Kura, and Arax, and
many others. If this estimation of the water flowing into the
Caspian is correct, the annual evaporation must equal this amount,
that is to say, 3 feet of water annually, or an average of nearly
one tenth of an inch per day must be evaporated to keep the
Caspian Sea at its present level. The amount of salt in the deep
southern part of the Caspian — for the northern part of the Cas-
pian is not more than 50 feet deep, is 2 percent. ,only, whereas
the oceans exhibit 3.5 percent, of salt. This peculiarity revives
a special interest which the evaporation is equal to the supply of
water, cannot only have failed to increase in density, but actually
decreased in salinity from 3.5 to 2 percent., since it has cut
off from the sea.

On the eastern shore of Caspian is a large basin, named Kara-
boghaz, separated from the open sea only by a mere strip of land,
and whose only communication with the open sea is by a narrow
channel about 150 yards wide and 5 feet deep, through which
a continuous but fluctuating stream of water, averaging 3 miles
per hour, flows, the current being entirely due to the intense
evaporation set up in a confined shallow area. The total area

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 119

of Karaboghaz is about 8,000 square miles, and Von Baer, who
has specially studied the Caspian estimates that no less than 350,-
000 tons of salt are daily abstracted from the sea by this basin
alone. As there are many other similar basins of smaller di-
mensions on the eastern and southern shores of theCaspian, and
on the northern shores enormous lagoons where salt is deposited
in a manner very much alike at Karaboghaz, a reason is found
for the brackishness of the Caspian, and an explanation is forth-
coming for the intense salinity of some of the strata fringing
the coasts.

Into this huge basin are swept daily thousands of fish, which
cannot survive the intense salinity of the water, and whose re-
mains must be deposited together with other sedimentary matter.
(The Russian Government has under its consideration a scheme
for closing the channel to this basin in order to save the fish.)
Violent sandstorms periodically sweep the region of Karaboghaz,
and one is led to inquire whether the deposition of huge quanti-
ties of known oily fish remain in a deposit of salt, and prob-
ably sulphate of lime, where practically the only silicous matter
is sand conveyed by winds, is not forming the material for a
future oil field, not unlike, in some respects, the existing oil fields.

SALT.

Salt occurs in Anatolia and Armenia abundantly in two differ-
ent modes; first, in beds and masses of rock salt, intercalated
between the strata of different geological periods; second, as
products of evaporation of recent periods, due to arid climate.

The salt mining in these countries was closely controlled by
Turkish Government and the revenue was assigned to the Pub-
lic Dept. administration. For this reason the exact statistics of
production have never been obtained. But, yet, approximate
production is said to arrive to about 6,000,000 dollars per year.
One fourth of the entire production has only been exported to
India.

Salt was manufactured all under the charge of officers ap-
pointed by the state, in three ways :

1. By evaporating sea water.

2. By evaporating the brine from salt springs or lakes.

3. By mining rock salt.

120 MINERAL RESOURCES

ROCK SALT.

The beds of Tertiary rock salts are generally attached, by
Tchihatcheff, to Miocene. It is probable that this long track of
Helvetian is the continuation of the chain of Tertiary beds, ex-
tending from Europe to Anatolia and Armenia, and thence to
Persia and to the Aralo-Caspian regions.

On the east of Kizil-Irmak the quarries of salt are exploited
long ago at Dekilo, Tepesidelik, etc.

The salt at Tchayan on the north of Loungourlu is also ex-
ploited.

On the west of Kizil-Irmak and on the north of Angora,
the deposits of Gangra (Tchangry) still retains its reputation
from niedieaeval ages up to present time ; and the mines of
Maghara and Balybagh are still in a very promising condition.

On the south of Kizil-Irmak, 50 Km. northeast from Kaiser-
ieh. the mines of Pallas and the Touz-Koi are important. At
Touz-Koi there are cliffs of salt with banks attaining 12-15
meters

On the west of Perghama, a deposit of rock salt which for a
long time called white rock (Leuke) strikes the eyes of the men
who enter the boat in the Gulf of Smyrna.

These beds are continued further to the east, between Erzerum
and Erzingan. Tchihatcheff mentions calcareous salt deposits
traversed by dolerites in the valley of Moushlou-Su. These
are equally connected to Miocene. ,

At Olti in Armenia, the salt is obtained from a depth of 16
meters.

A rock salt of Miocene age is mined at Nakhichevan, Kulpi,
and Kagizman in the Araxes Valley. At Kulpi a hill of rock
salt covers an area 1.5 verst and that salt has a thickness of
150 meters. The single banks are 2.2 meters thick.

A rock salt is found and worked near Van and at several other
points in the eastern mountains. Very little is known about
these workings. Here, an immense track of rock salt of Mio-
cene age is extending from Lake Van to Lake Urmi.

At Hazo, on the southern border of Taurus, is found a very
pure rock salt, in sheets of. one inch thick.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 121

SALT PRODUCED BY EVAPORATION.

{Marine or Lacustrine.)

The Lycaonian plateau is the most important saHne region in
Anatolia. The centre of Asia Minor, the greatest depression be-
tween Pontic and Tauric chains, has been a lacustrine or marine
basin since Miocene; but, moreover, the salt has been concen-
trating in pools by evaporation, since Pontian epoch.

Among these saline basins the Touze-Tchollu or Geullu is
known from antitquity which Strabo cites for curiosity. Sodium
chloride is the chief constituent which attains to 32.2 per cent. ;
strongest of all saline basins so far known. While this lake is
heavily charged with sodium chloride on one hand, the Lake
Murad-Geul is in its vicinity, charged with magnesium chloride
on the other hand. The Boulouk-Geul, near Eskil, contain sul-
phate of magnesium and sodium.

In extensive central depression of Anatolia the rainfall is col-
lected in saline lakes. In former times when the climate was more
moist than at present, these now landlocked basins, probably,
discharged their overflow seawards. But the old freshwater
lakes have been transformed to salt lagoons by the gradual des-
sication of the land and the excess of evaporation over the
rainfall in the basin of Kizil-Irmak gives it a brackish taste.
In the Sivas plain it traverses beds of pure salt, where the
natives of Western Armenia derive their usual supply.

In the lacustrine region of Central Anatolia seems to have
formerly formed part of the Sakaria basin, at least for the
greater part of its extent. Here the largest sheet of water is the
Tuz-gol or "salt lake," which is at least 60 miles long northwest
and southeast, nowhere less than 3 or 4 miles wide. It covers
a total area of over 400 square miles, but in summer its mean
depth is probably less than 7 feet. Towards the centre are seen
the traces of a dyke over 7 miles long constructed by a Sultan
for military purposes, and here the water is nowhere much more
than 3 feet deep. During the dry season its outlines could scarce-
ly be recognized but for the plants growing along the shore, be-
yond which an unbroken deposits of salt stretches for many miles
in some direction. In winter the whole depression is flooded but
even then the surface is covered by a saline crust from 2 inches

122 MINERAL RESOURCES

to 6 7 feet in thickness, and generally solid enough to support
a man on horseback. According to Phillips, the water of the
Tuz-gol is heavier and more saline than that of the Dead Sea,
containing over 32.3% salt, with a specific weight of 1.40.

West of Tuz-gol the plain is studded with numerous ponds,
tarns, salt pools, swamps, and rivulets, which evaporate in sum-
mer, and which besides salt, often contain sulphate of magnesia
and soda. The temporary lakes stretching to the south and west
are also charged with bitter magnesium salts, without any ad-
mixture of chloride of sodium. Such phenomena are common
enough in closed basins, and are due to the different chemical
constituents of the soil traversed by the streams.

Besides the steppe lakes, evidently the remains of an older and
more extensive basin which drained northwards through Sakaria,
there are other reservoirs, where although now occupying dis-
tinct cavities in almost closed cirques, appear to have belonged
to the system of seaward drainage. Traces of old communica-
tions are indicated at several places by channels and ra!vines still
showing the marks of running water. To the same marine
basin of Central Anatolia apparently also belonged the reservoirs
scattered over the depression lying between the Emir-dagh and
Sultan-dagh, and which are alternately flooded basins and simple
meres surrounded by aline incrustation.

In Armenia the Lake Van, on the south of Ararat, and lakes
Urmi, Khosapin and others, on the east of Ararat, are also
more or less arrived to the saline condition. Most of these
lakes are formed in Pliocene, following the recent principal
movements. Some of them are due to detritus deposits, and rep-
resent stratigraphically the stage of Pliocene, by lacusrine sedi-
ments. Others have had free drainag and are remained from
la^kes of sweet waters, like Gokcha, Chaldir, Toporavan and
Nazik; some of them manifesting still a degree of saline evap-
oration like the lakes Khozapin, Urmi and others on the east
of Ararat. Between these lakes are seen ancient terraces as-
cending to the level of primitive waters and show evidences of
falling down by the effect of the gradual evaporation.

In the Lake Van, the proportion of soHds in solution, princi-
pally carbonate of potassium and sodium chlorides and sulphates,
is very large while the amount of suspended matter is very trifling.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

123

It is estimated that he alkalinity is equal to rather more than
3.25 ounces of ordinary soda crystals dissolved in a gallon of
water.

This lake comprises an area of 1300 square miles, at an ele-
vation of 5737 feet. Its extreme length wrould seem to measure
78 miles, and the breadth from north to south of the principal
body is about 32 miles. To all appearances it is very deep ex-
cept at the northeast and southwest extremities. The color of
the sheet of water cannot be given in a single word; it varies
with extraordinary range of scale. A cobalt blue of great bril-
liancy is perhaps the most frequent hue. A certain milky pale-
ness becomes invested at morning and evening with an infinite
number of delicate tints. Only one kind of fish is found in
Lake Van, resembling a large bleak.

Samples are taken from the waters of Lake Van by different
analysts and results are given in the following table :

QUANTITIES OF SOLIDS IN .SOLUTION ESTIMATED IN PARTS
PER 100,000..

Chancourtois

Abich

Serda

Thorp.

Chlorine

556.68

488.12

579-12

568.90

Carbonates

329.06

249-45

328.64

320.57

Sulphates

312.78

188.48

198.47

203.40

Phospate

0.15

0.05

Nitrate

Soda

1206.37

862.82

1040.87

1 1 15.92

Potash

2975

29.23

52.81

39-92

Magnesia

26.21

21.29

27.31

Not. Det.

Lime

5-24

Strontium

0.63

Iron Oxide

0.30.

Maganese Oxide

0.22

Ammonia

0.57

Silica Alumina

18.00

trace

7.29

7-53

Alumina

358

0-35

1. 01

Total solids

2260.00

1734.21

2110.98
a little

2248.9

Suspended Matter

organic matter

0-39

124 MINERAL RESOURCES

CALCULATED COMPOSITION IN PARTS 100,000.

Chancourtois

Sodium Chloride 938.00
Sodium Carbonate 861.00
Sodium Sulphate 333-00
Potassium Sulphate 55-00
Magnes. Carbonate 55-0°

Magnes. Sulphate

Calcium Carbonate

Calcium Sulphate

Calcium Phosphate

Strontium Sulphate

Iron Carbonate

Magnes. Carbonte

Ammonium Chlor

Silica 18.00

Alumina

Nitrates

Per Cent, of Solids 22.6 17-34 21.10 22.48

The specific gravity of the water was determined by Chancour-
tois as 1.0188, and by Abich as 1.0189, both at I9°C. As Abich
points out the water of Lake Van is nearly identical in composi-
tion with that of some of the Soda Lakes at the southeastern
foot of Ararat, in the Araxes plain. In some of these the Chlor-
ide, in others the carbonate, and in others again the sulphates of
Sodium is the predominating constituent. Probably the compo-
sition of the waters of Lake Van vary somewhat in different parts
of the lake. Abich's sample certainly is less saline than those
of the other analysts.

Abnormal salinity is a special feature about the waters of Lake
Urmi, and extensive beds of rock salts are found in their vicinity.
It has been estimated that they are six times as salty as the ocean ;
though only three-fifths as heavily charged with saline matter as
the waters of the Dead Sea.

Lake Urmi is situated at an elevation of 4100 feet, covering an
area of 1823 square miles. Its extreme length from north to
south is 80 miles, and its breadth from east to west 24 miles.

Abich

Serda

Thorp.

810.67

953-84

938-84

54384

714-43

773-11

258.68

266.53

369.09

54.06

97.66

73-82

40.71

57-31

Not. Det.

22.67

4.70

5-93
0.32

O.II

0.49
0.36
1.69

3-58

7.29

8.53

0.34

lOI

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 125

It resembles its neighbor on the west in constituting an isolated
basin, many rivers flowing in but none out. On the other hand
its significant depth invests it with the character of a lagoon.
The average being not more than 20 feet and maximum 45 to
50 feet. Evaporation must be very rapid over such a sheet of
water. The color is deep azure, neither fish nor molluscs can
live within them. Shores are impregnated with salt ; upon the
margin are found fragments of fossil coral and shell.

The following analysis of the extraordinary saline waters of
Lake Urmi are appended for contrast rather than for comparison
with those of Lake Van.

LAKE URMI.

QUANTITIES OF SOLIDS IN SOLUTION ESTIMATED IN PARTS
PER 100,000.

Chlorine

Sulphates

Soda

Potash

Magnesia

Lime

In this case Abich's sample was a stronge solution than Gun-
ther's, the percentage of solid salts being 22.28 and 14.89 re-
spectively. Yet the relative proportion of the various salts is
very similar as shown by the following comparison of percen-
tages :

Gunther &
Abich Manley

Sodium Chloride '86.37 86.20

Magnesium Chloride 6.94 6.82

Magnesium Sulphate 6.08 4.15

Calcium Chloride 0.27 ....

Calcium Sulphate 0.34 i-i5

Potassium Sulphate . ■ • • 1-74

100.00 100.061

Gunther &

Abich

Manley

12,686.80

8,536.00

929.03

631.20

10,106.40

6,814.00

140.00

1,099.30

626.60

3770

70.60

126 MINERAL RESOURCES

The specific gravity in the two cases were determined 'as 1.175
and I.I 13 respectively.

BORATE.

The borate of Anatolia is a particularly interesting deposit,
which in the past, played an important factor in the world's com-
merce. Extensive beds of borate, a massive and not entirely
pure variety of Colemanite, a calcium borate, are mined at Sul-
tan-Tchair, in the province of Hudavendighiar. The mines
lie on the mail-route leading from Panderma harbor to Bali-
kesser 11 Km. south of Susurlu. For this reason the exploited
borate, the borate of hydrated calcium, is shipped to the port
of Panderma and called by the name of Pandermite.

According to Weiss the pandermites occur in Tertiary sedi-
mentaries lying in a basin surrounded by steep hills of gabbro,
granite and crystalline schist. The productive beds consist of a
brownish to bluish gray gypsum, containing nodules of variable
sizes dispersed within the gypsum and forming from 10 to 20
per cent, of the aggregate mass. This mine produces 10-15000
tons of borate annually valuing approximately 2,000,000 fr. An
English company organized in 1880, produced 7400 tons annually.
A French company organized in 1891, produced 5,000 tons of
borate from the mines of Azizie. Finally these two companies
united by the name of "Consolidated Borax Co."

The deposit of borate in Sultan-Tchair comprises an area of
8 square km. In this basin are accumulated the sedimentary
deposits whose superior part only belong to Tertiary and con-
tains the beds of borate. The top is covered first with about
80 m. thick grits and schists, and then with a mass of argillace-
ous gypsum attaining 30 to 40 m. thickness, and lastly with
banks of calcareous rocks and conglomerates. The pandermite
is very ultimately associated with the gypsum on the banks in
an irregular thickness. It is also found that some compact an-
hydrates have exteriorly the aspect of marble and white silicate
of magnesium and lime. The density of mineral attains to about
2.5 and it is distinguished by this capacity and by chemical com-
position from the light borate of Chili.

The beds contaning pandermite have a declination of 5 to 15

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 127

degress to the south in a lanticular shape. The thickness of beds
falling down rapidly from 5 to o. m.

The origin of the pandermite must evidently be same as the
borate deposits of Staasfurt, Chili and California. The evapora-
tion has given chance to boric acid to combine with diverse
bases produced from surrounding rocks. It is said that the
straasfurtite, the double salt of sodium borate and magnesium
chloride, is found in a salt bearing hill. In California either
ulixite, sodium and calcium borate, or priceite, borate of lime,

THE LENTICULAR BEDS OF PANDERMITE
IN SULTAN-CHAIR.

are formed with the chloride, sulphate and carbonate of sodium,
for these two cases lagoon character of evaporation is not con-
testable. But the prior presence of abnormal quantity of boron
must also be considered. This may not be attributed to the
constant supply of weak boric acid in the sea water ; because any
other large region has not given any borate under similar condi-
tions of concentration. It must be kept in mind that boric acid
is also supplied by hot springs and salfataras of volcanic origin,
or from emanations of fumerols or jets of steam issuing from the
ground.

Another region rich in borate, under similar conditions, is
the Lake Urmi. After Abich a mineral water containing I/2 per
cent, borate of soda is observed in contact with eupholite and
serpentine, same condition as the saline beds, associated with
ophites, of Pyreneese.

The International Borate Company was tending to control these
deposits. Since the levy of royalty of 16 per cent, on the gross
products, work has not been carried on as extensively as here-
tofore. The annual output ranges:

128 MINERAL RESOURCES

Years Metric Tons

1894 1

1896 2,602

1897 2,412

PANDERMITE.

1892 1 1,622

1893 9,100

1894 9,080

Z] -^^

1897 •: 11.375

1900 and after 10 to 15,000

The following table shows the position of Anatolia in the pro-
duction of borate, in comparison with other great producing
countries :

1897

United States 17,600

Chili 3,168

India 280

Germany 198

Italy 2,704

Peru 11,850

1904

United States 41,400

ChiH 16,730

India

Germany 135

Italy 2,624

Peru

Turkey 10 to 15,000 tons per year.

1899

I90I

1903

21,834

16,227

31,000

14,951

11,450

16,870

250

162

183

184

159

2,674

2,558

7.638

to 15,000

tons per year.

1905

1906

1907

42,000

52,770

48,440

19,610

28,019

28,370

183

161

114

2,700

2,561

2,305

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 129

EMERY.

The emery has also been a substance of great industrial im-
portance playing a great role in the world's commerce.

By the settlement of the political situation it is hoped that
the new resources will soon be exploited and the production will
be doubled or trippled.

The mineral which was first obtained from the Grecian Archi-
pelago, was discovered in Asia Minor by L. Smith in his ex-
plorations, which lasted from 1844-1847. At first the emery was
found in scattered masses on ridges formed mainly from a bluish
limestone. There were the least remains of the stone in which
the mineral was originally embedded.

The emery is found in a district extending from the Gumugh-
dagh, near Lokia, to Kutaya, also west of Koola and north of
Smyrna, in fact, on nearly all the ridges separating the river
valleys in this region.

Further to the south along the small rivers running from the
mountain range boulders of emery are found mixed with gravel
which have probably been carried down from the mountains.
The region is composed of talcose and chloritic slates passing
into mica slates, with large beds of limestone.

The mines lie in a belt extending 200 miles south and southeast
of Smyrna. Noteworthy localities are Cozbounar, Kuluk
Azizie, Bahchejik, Hassan-Chaushlar and Saka, on the Aidin
railway, 50 miles south of Smyrna.

The richest and best situated deposits of emery are in the
Gumugh-dagh, and along the railroad which has been built from
Smyrna to Aindin. Here the emery is found in pockets, some
of which are several meters across, embedded in limestones. The
rock is very hard and tenacious, and is difficult to break. As
mined it is a mixture of corundum with magnetite and hematite.
Occasionally it is accompanied with chloride with inclosed octa-
hedral crystals of magnetite. Its sp. gr. varies from 3.75 to
4.30, the principal constituent being 60 to 70 per cent, aluminum
oxide, 9 to 33 per cent, iron oxide. The remaining constituents
are oxide of calcium, silicon dioxide, carbon dioxide and water.

The original grant for working emery mines was purchased
by Mr. Abbot for an annual payment of $55,000. He already

I30 MINERAL RESOURCES

held a contract for mining emery from the Greek Government,
and later entered into a partnership with the English firm of
John Taylor and Son.

The chief mines in Turkey are opened by shafts and galler-
ies, explosives being used in the extraction of the mineral. At
the Jackson mine a steam-pump is employed, the one lying at
considerable depth and water being encountered. At one of
the Abbot mines the emiery is dug up from the red argillaceous
earth of the surface. The larger pieces are broken at mine
by heating and then cooling suddenly with water, being finally
reduced by sledging.

As to the origin, Dr. Lawrence Smith came to a firm con-
clusion that emery has been formed and consolidated in the lime-
stone in which it is found and that it has not been detached from
the older rocks as granite gneiss, etc., and lodged in the lime-
stone at its period of formation.

All the emery mined is shipped from Smyrna, the United
States taking about 60 per cent, of total and Great Britain about
40 per cent.

The cost of production at the mine is estimated at 8 dollars
per ton.

Emery deposits are also found in Khatchbulach, Caucasian Ar-
menia, 45 Kjm. south of Elizabethpol.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION.
Years Metric Ton

1893 8325

1894 6034

1895 6591

1896 3000

1898 62353

1899 24475

MEERSCHAUM. (Sepiolite)

To the sepiolite of Asia Minor is often given the preference on
account of its ready adaptation for certain uses in jewelry. It
occurs in masses in stratified earthy or alluvial deposits, where
it has been formed from the decomposition of megnesium car-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 131

bonate which is imbedded in serpentine, in the surrounding moun-
tains. It is richer in silica than that found in Utah and in
North Carolina.

The plains near Eski-shehir, in Asia Minor, constitutes one
of the important localities from which this hydrous silicate of
magnesium is mined. The meerschaum district extends from
the town of Eski-shehir, on the Anatolian railway, almost due
eastward to the City of Angora. The mines lie at a distance of
about 22 Km. from the railroad station, to which the ore is
packed by camel trains. The chief producing mines are those
of Saresu, Sepki, Sepetji-ojaghi and Kemikji-ojaghi, at a dis-
tance of three miles from the other.

The deposits occur in a valley filled with drift material from
the surrounding mountains. The sepiolite is scattered through
the drift in rounded nodular masses with fragments of magnesium
and hornblende rocks. As a rule the nodules do not exceed 3
inches in diameter, but a few attain larger dimensions. In row
condition the mineral is soft, light, and non-transparent. The
color is white, with occasional blending of yellow, red or gray.
The thickness of meerschaum bearing strata varies between 10
and 130 ft.

Almost all the meerschaum mined in Asia Minor was con-
trolled by Austrian dealers and finds its way to Vienna, where it
was used extensively in the manufacture of pipe heads and
cigar holders.

Mining is carried on by means of leasing system, both in
open cut and underground Work. Pits from 25 to 120 ft. deep
are dug, and as soon as the vein is struck, horizontal galleries,
sometimes of considerable length, are made, but more than two
galleries are seldom to be found in one pit. The stone as ex-
tracted is called "ham-tash" rough block, and is soft enough
to be easily cut with a knife. In this state the blocks are
purchased by dealers on the spot, not by weight, nor by measure-
ment, but occording to proximate quantity, either per load of
three sacks, or per cartload.. The price varying from 25 to 150
dollars per load, accordingly to quality. These rough blocks are
dried and subjected to certain preparations before being con-
veyed to Eski-Shehir. , The manipulation required before they
are ready for exportation is long and costly. The clayey soil

132 MINERAL RESOURCES

attached is removed, and the meerschaum is dried. In summer
exposure for five or six days to the sun's rays suffices, but in
winter a room heated to the required temperature and the dry-
ing takes 8 to ID days. When well dried the blocks are well
cleaned and polished; then they are sorted into about 12 classes,
each class being packed with great care in separate cases and
each block being wrapped in cotton wool. The dimensions of
these cases vary according to the five classes they are divided into,
in accordance with the Zolwein system, which has been recently
generally adopted owing to the fact that the bulk of the meer-
schaum is sent to Vienna, where it is worked and dispersed all
over the world, the most of the finest specimens are sent direct
to Paris. Certain American dealers have visited Aski-Sehir with
the object of obtaining the raw articles direct instead of through
Vienna, thereby saving the higher custom house duty payable
on the worked meerschaum. The quantity annually exported is
put down at 8,000 to 10,000 cases.

It is maintained locally that the Eski-Shehir meerschaum is
superior to that of Sebastopol and Caffa, in the Crimea, of Egrilos
(Negropont), and of Corinth.

SULPHUR.

Sulphur occurs in Anatolia and x^rmenia commonly in the hot
springs, both active or extinct, in Tufas or volcanic tufifs, and great
deal in the sedimentary beds in close association with gypsum.

Brimestone deposits exist in Dardanelles peninsula, in beds of
clay and is mixed with bitumen. In volcanic islands sulphur is
found in several places.

In the Armenian mountains beds of sulphur also exist. Sul-
phur is dug at Bechanach in the Daralagoz district. These con-
tain quartzose clay layers, about one meter thick of Miocene age,
containing 24% sulphur. At Gumiur in the same district trachyte
is overlying the sulphur. Moreover there exist sulphur mines at
Daata, 7 km. from Diadin. There a layer of pure sulphur 8
cm. thick lies under a breccia cemented with sulphur. That rock
which was deposited from sulphur springs of Diadin contains
18% sulphur. 65.72% anhydrite.

The deposits from the fumerols of the Tendurak volcanoes
which are in solfatine condition, yields "j^Jo sulphur.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 133

ALUM

Many alum deposits are known to occur in Asia Minor since
memorial times. None but one is exploited, in the vicinity of
Shabin-Karahissar.

The small city of some 13,000 inhabitants in the eastern parts
of the province of Sivas that bears the official name of Karahis-
sar-Sharki, or Eastern Kara-Hissar, is generally known on maps
and in common conversation as "Shabin Karahissar" (Shab mean-
ing alum). It seems certain that the alum workings within a short
distance from the town have been in operation for at least 300
years, and have given the designation of "Shabin" to the town just
as Afion "Opium" Kara-Hissar in western Anatolia, and a small
town called Develi (place of camels), Kara Hissar near Ceasarea,
have acquired their names through some features in the regions
in which they, are situated. The term "Kara-Hissar" is applied
to a peculiar outcropping of blackish rock in the form of a tall
peak or mountain that exists near each of these towns. The hills
against the sloping of whch Shabin Kara-Hissar is built is sur-
rounded by a well preserved masonry town and fortress that
must have been very strong in the days of mediaeval warfare.

The alunite of Shabin Karahissar is found in the regions com-
prised between the city of Shahjn Karahissar and the village of
Lidjesi. The mine is very remarkable not only by its geology
but by its industrial importance. The alumite is found in the
Tertiary syenite rocks. The mineral contains both alum and
alunite which is analized by Mr. Rivot, the director of the labor-
atory of the School of Mines of Paris.

Silica 35.75

Aluminum 14.80

Iron Oxide 1.20

Potas. Oxide 6.55

Sod. Oxide 6.45

Sulphuric Acid 8.40

Loss by Calcination. .23.60

99-55
It is a compact mass, yellowish; concoidal fracture, formed in

134 MINERAL RESOURCES

the nests and wedges of the syenite with considerable dimensions
either vertical or horizontal.

There is plentiful supply of the rock or raw materal, as the
operatons so far have been primitive, and only the face of the
hillside has been dug out and reduced. The alum bearing rock
is brightly colored, usually with a pinkish or red tinge, and the
waste from the Goynyk workings flows down to a small stream
along the roadside; to these waters it gives a pinkih white and
opaque color, incidentally kiling all the brook trout that happen
to venture into the stained water from tthe higher part of the
stream.

The, operations are conducted by Greeks from the nearby vil-
lages. Wood for fuel, taken from surrounding mountans until
they were denuded; it its now brought from relatively long dis-
tance.

The process of alum extraction is briefly as follows : — The
rock or ore is first roasted and then broken into small pieces,
which are very light because the chemical elements have been
burned out. Fifty horseloads of loo okes (282 lbs.) each of wood
are required to burn 10 tons of stone in the furnace. The broken
rock is then placed in open pits and allowed to be exposd to th
rain and weather for a while.

From reliable source it is learned that the annual production of
alum in this region is 2000 to 3000 tons. The alum extracted at
Goynyk is said to be the strongest and most concentrated. Other
workings are at Gotadza and Geliese, raw material yields 14.8%
of alum.

Alum is consumed locally, and large quantities are shipped to
Harpoot, Diarb^kr, and the regions further inland. There seems
to be no expo'lation to foreign countries. The principal use of
alum is connected with the dying of cloth and yarn, the prepara-
tion of leather and medicinal purposes. Not the least important
use is f^i a charm, a triangular piece being placed in a case made
of silver, blue beads, etc. and worn about the neck of both human
beings and animals. The price of alum at the mine is about 5 to
7 piasters per batman (7 lbs.) or ij4 to i^ cents per pound,
while in markets of Karahissar it retails for about 2J5^ cents a
pound.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 135

The existance of this mineral is also reported from the Sam-
son, Kerason, Tripoli, Trebizond, etc., occurring in the Tertiary
syenites.

Alunite of exceptionally good quality is found at Saglik near
Dashkessan in Gokcha range. It is found in Kidney formed con-
cretions in trachyte tuffs of Turanian age. The occurances seems
to be inexhaustible. The alunite contains 37.58% of alum and
is free from pyrite and iron oxides. Occurances of less tech-
nical importance lie at Bechanak and in the Dary-dagh in the
Daralagoz district.

LIMESTONES

Cretaceous white calcite occur extensively in both coimtries
which is locally used for construction, lime and soap manufac-
turing.

ONYX : The beautiful banded and translucent spring deposit of
recent limestine is known to exist in Pontus, in the Lower course
of Halys, and Thermodon associated with jasper susceptible to
take nice polish.

LITHOGRAPHIC STONE: The fine grained limestone, with imper-
fect concoidal fracture, gray and yellow in color, occur abundant-
ly near Panderma. The output was controlled for some years
by an English Syndicate. A good deal of money was spent with-
out any result. The failure of the enterprise was attributed to
the ignorance of Turkish customs and methods of dealing on
the part of the management.

ARGILLACEOUS CALCITE rock occur extensively which may be
readily used for cement manufacturing. The beds of this rock
have never been exploited.

MARBLE : The compact type, crystalline, metamorphosed lime»-
stone occurs also extensvely in both countries. The rock is locally
used for ornamental masonry. Its banded texture and the beauti-
ful color due to the mixture of oxides of different metals has
made it very desirable. According to the color it is locally called
"white marble," "red marble," "yellow marble," "green marble,*'
etc. The marbles and other metamorphic calcite rocks occur
mostly in the vicinity of igneous rocks which is for this reason,
called contact product of limestone.

136 MINERAL RESOURCES

CHALK : The purest and the most white type of limestones is
widely distributed over both countries. This natural substance
could readily be used in paper, pigment and marking-chalk manu-
facturing if a good opportunity is created for the industrial devel-
opment. No beds of chalk exploited, the marking-chalk is either
imported from Europe and America.

GYPSUM

The sedimentary Tertiary beds of saline residue of gypsum
occur extensively in the plateau formations. The efflorescence
of gypsum are found along the saline lakes of Lycaonia, Lake
Urmi, Lake Van, etc. The residual sulphate of sodium and car-
bonates are also found in the same saline regions associated with
salt and little magnasium sulphate.

NITRATE

The beds of sodium nitrate is said to occur in saline regions
associated with gypsum, borate, and also with volcanic tuffs,
basalts and lake beds in volcanic regions. No attempts have
been made for its exploitation.

CLAYS

Clays, of recent age, either sedimentary or residual, occur
extensively in both countries. The ordinary red clay is used
in local pottery and tile manufacturing.

fuller's earth : Every shade, from ray to dark green, occur
everywhere which is used by natives in baths to clean the body
from greese and other persperations. The beds of this natural
substance could, in future be used for the cleaning of garments,
deoxidizing, decolorizing and clarifying of fats and oils and in
refining of petroleum.

KAOLiNE : The purest variety of clay also occur in some places
without any industrial application. The development of paper,
paint, putty, crayon, china and pottery manufacturing will soon
necessitate its exploitation.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 137

AGATE

In Asia Minor and Pontus, in the direction towards Kerasun
and Trebizond, the agate, onyx and jasper is known to exist,
which is still in the treasures of the famous Mithridate conquered
by Pompius. The lower course of Halys (Kizil-semak) and
Thermodon are furnished with these stones. Near Thermodon
the port of Ounieh where extracted in the white and red cal-
careous rocks a bank of jasper susceptible to take nice polish.

SILICEOUS MARL
Spreading layers of white siliceous marl with 87.2 per cent
silica, are found in about 5 cm. thick sheets at Kessatip not far
from Akhalzik in Uraval Valley. A sim^jlar deposit of diatom-
aceous earth of Pleistocene age is found at Ilija near Erzerum.

PART III.

METALLIC MINERALS

GOLD

Three major folded arcs, forming as many independent chains
of lofty peaks, fringe the wave-battered shores of Asia Minor,
and, encircling, rinl-like, its elevated barren plateaus, determine
the trend-lines of the structure of this westernmost projection
of the Asiatic continent. Within the mighty folds of each, oc-
curs an auriferous zone, genetically related to copious lava-flows
of comparatively recent origin, detailed studies of which are yet
to be made.

The Pontic gold-field lies in the most easterly, and the Ana-
tolian gold-field in the most westerly, of these zone's of dis-
turbance, the effects of which have been so far-reaching upon the
development and history of the peninsula. A third gold-field
of altogether minor historical importance, lies on the slopes of
the Tauric mountains, the most imposing of these three great
uplifts.

This occurence within the only zones where heavy mountain-
making agenciefs have been at work, of the only known gold pro-
ducing areas in Asia Minor, can scarcely be regarded as a mere
coincidence, though it would be hazardous, at this incipient stage
of our knowledge of the geology of the region, to carry our
generalizations too far.

ANATOLIAN GOLD-FIELD. This metalliferous province forms
part of a geologic belt extending from the plains of Troy
to the valley of the Pactolus, and slightly further south, so as
to include Mount Tmolus — the modern Boz-Dagh. It contributed
largely to the gold-output of proto-historic times, and, as. might
be naturally expected, it has been duly commemorated in vari-
ous legends which have descended to us, together with the super-
abundant exaggerations with which ancient exploits were wont
to be embellished.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 139

Its northeast portion was explored during antiquity in the
vicinity of the Asiatic shores of the Dardanelles. The abund-
ance of gold jewelry found in the excavations on the site of
the several cities of Troy indicates a large production of gold
from localities probably not far away. The best-known of
these mining camps of the Troad flourished between Pergamos
and Ataineds, and were inhabited by the Dactyles, a hardy and
enterprising race. Strabo, in the course of his travels, found
numerous traces of ancient workings in the vicinity of the
ancient town of Astyra, then a ruined city which formed part
of Abydos, but which has been independent when the gold-
mines in its vicinity were productive. At the time of Strabo's
visit, close to the dawn of the Christian era, the mines had
been practically abandoned, and the formerly prosperou!s mining-
camp had dwindled to commercial insignificance. The extent
of the ancient workings seen by him indicates that mining had
been carried on very actively at this point, and legendary tales
often attribute the immense wealth of Tantalus or of Priam to
the owner^ship of these diggings.

The site of Astyra is supposed to coincide with that of the
modern hamlet of Serjiller, about 14 miles south of the Dar-
denelles. Abandoned workings of considerable extent are known
to exist at this point, in a mica-schist country, intruded upon
by lower Tertiary igneous rocks, which according to Diller,
English and Flett, consist of liparite, mica-hornblende, and aug-
ite-andesites, the latter is an advanced stage of decomposition.
All these volcanic rocks have been ultimately capped with ba-
salt. This igneous series is remarkably similar to some which
have been observed in various zones of volcanic activity within
the great American Great Basin region, such as the southwestern
portion of Nevada, where appreciable amounts of gold have
been yielded by veins incafeed within rocks, the chief charac-
teristic of which appear to consist in the intermediate com-
position, in a scale of decreasing acidity of the magmas from
which they have 'solidified.

A portion of the large quantity of gold articles unearthed on
the site of Troy must have been derived from Phrygia and
Lydia, two of the most importanlt miriing-provinces of tlh'e
wtorld in the first millenium B. C. It may be recalled here

140 MINERAL RESOURCES

that the Troad borders on Phrygia, where, according to ancient
traditions, the discovery of the art of fusing metals took place
in the course of a forest-fire, during which it was found that
fragments of ore had been accidentally melted.

There cannot be any doubt that the Phrygians, in common
with their better-known eastern neighbors, the Lydians, were
the most renowned miners and metallurgists during the pre-
eminence of Hellenic culture. The profusion of mineral species,
enumerated by Pliny as found in these kingdoms, indicates that
the natives had abundant opportunities to become proficient in
the arts of mining and smelting.

Lydia especially was renowned for its wealthy rulers and
citizens, most of whom were owners and operators of mines.
Sardes, the capital, was long a world-market for gold, silver,
copper, and iron. Not only did the Lydians derive large incomes
directly from their underground operations but, being situated,
geographically, midway between Western culture and Eastern
splendor, they managed to act as commission-agents for both
parties, so that products from either direction paid them toll
in transit, and thus increased the wealth of the Lydian capital-
ists. Herodotus mentions the colossal, forunte reaching far
into the tens of millions of dollars, amassed by Prince Phthios,
Supposed by some to have been a descendant of Croesus, the
wealthiest of the kings of Lydia. This nobleman was the dy-
nast of Celenes when Xerxes invaded the West. Plutarch de-
clares that it was his custom to prevent the inhabiants of the
mining-districts under his rule from pursuing heir agricultural
labors, lest the time thus spent be subtracted from more profit-
able employment at underground work. We can more easily
understand such conditions when we take into consideration
the great scarcity of metals, and the consequent demand for
them,, which existed at that time throughout Europe. The lack
of gold was particularly felt in Greece in the sixth century B.
C, when the Lacedemonians had to import expressly from
Lydia the relatively small amount required for the gilding of a
statue. With regard to the wealth of Croesus, Rawlinson, re-
ferring to Strabo, says that its reality cannot be questioned;
for Herodotus had himself seen the ingots of solid gold, six
palms long, three broad and one deep, which to the number

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

141

of 117 were laid up in the treasury at Delphi.

The height of Lydian prosperity was attained in the first
quarter of the seventh century B. C. and successfully main-
tained during the ensuing 250 years. Throughout this period the
precious metal was won both from alluvial and from deeper
mining. Glowing tales concerning the gold-producing banks of
the Hermos were spread to the confines of the world ; and many
are the legends that spring from the accounts of the rich clean-
ups made by enterprising Lydian prospectors in washing the
gravels of the Hermos and its tributary, the Pactolus. The lat-
ter stream owed its gold, according to an ancient story, to the
fact that Midas, the mythical founder of the Phrygian kingdom,

i Syrian e a e r t'.^a ^i

MAP REPRESENTS THE ANCIENT GOLD FIELDS OF
ANATOLIA AND PONTUS.

had bathed in its waters, upon the advice of Bacchus, in order to
be deprived of the fatal faculty of turning everything he touched
into gold. This tradition, like so many others of a kindred nature,
has value only as indicating the existence of an ancient and
flourishing placer-indiistry in the valley of the Pactolus. This
river, as well as the Hermos, of which it is an affluent, rises on
the northern slope of the Tmolus mountain, itself the site of nu-
merous mining- excavations. It may be safely assumed, as an

142 MINERAL RESOURCES

explanation of these old workings, that the discovery of nuggets
in the river-sediments stimulated a careful examination of the
immediate vicinity and that this search led the ancient prospec-
tors to the ultimate source of the gold, namely, to the aurifer-
ous veins of the mountain.

How prolific in their yield of the precious metal these banks
of the Pactolus must have been may be inferred from a partial
review of the frequent allusions in ancient literature to the
gold-bearing sands of this famous river. Tchihtchaff's enumera-
tion suggests the strong appeal made by this source of wealth
to the imagination of ancient writers. Among others, Scylan of
Caryadnis speaks of the Pactolus as having formerly borne the
name of Chrysoras (the gold-bearing), by reason of its auriferous
character. He claims, furthemore, that the precious element
was engendered eternally in its waters. Herodotus also alludes
to the gold carried by this stream; and it is interesting to note
that he lays special stress on the notion that the gold was prim-
arily obtained from the flanks of Mount Tmolus. Poets and
writers in endless succession have extolled the good fortune of
the Lydian prospector. Virgil, Juvenal, Sivius Italicus, all re-
fer in glowing terms to the gold-laden muds borne along with
the flowing waters. Seneca, with wonted emphasis, describes the
river as inundating the fields with gold (inundat auro rura).

Nevertheless, this production was not destined to be everlast-
ing. In Strabo's time, at the beginning of the Christian era, it
had dwindled to comparative insignificance. Philostrates quotes
Appolonius as saying that the Pactolus was "formerly" aurifer-
ous ; and, inasmuch as this celebrated philosopher was a contem-
porary of Nero and Vespasian, it may be inferred that very little
gold was recovered from this source at that time. The same
writer advances the hypothesis of the primary derivation of the
nuggets from the very rocks of Mount Tmolus, and his asser-
tions in this respect indicate a remarkable soundness of deductive
reasoning. In the light of modern theories on placer-formation,
a part of their metallic contents may well have been derived
from the rocks incasing the veins which, in the course of their
erosion, have contributed the bulk of the metal subsequently re-
deposited in the form of nuggets.

A later writer, Festus Avenius, makes use of the term "auriger"

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 143

in the text of a description of this affluent of the Hermos. His
use of the adjective need not, however, be taken as indicaitve of
a renewed activity of mining on the Pactolus. It may have been
employed by way of reminiscence only. Such, indeed, appears
to be the case in the writings of Constantine Manasses, a By-
zantine writer of the eleventh century; and John the Lydian, a
native of the valley of the Hermos, alludes to the Pactolus merely
to refer to its past contributions to the world's wealth. In our
own time, peasants dwelling in he vicinity of Boz-Dagh are
known to make a scanty livelihood by washing the gravels brought
down by the rivers. But their appearance and mode of living are
far from supporting a belief in the continued abundance of the
yellow metal in that region. It is therefore possible that the
placers of this gold-field were exhausted fifteen centuries ago,
although the same assertion might not be made with regard to
the original sources of the nuggets discovered by the ancients.

The ambition of these early Greek miners was not confined to
alluvial mining. Numerous deeper workings have been found
on the slopes of Mount Tmolus. Farther north and in a simi-
lar direction from the bay of Smyrna, similar vestiges of ancient
labors are to be seen on Mount Sipylus — the modern Manissa-
Dagh. Thomae, speaking of gold-ores in the vilayet of Aidin,
refers to this locality as one from which part of the wealth of
Croesus was derived. He says the ancient workings had not
been fully fathomed, although a vertical depth of 200 ft. below
the crown of the hill has been reached. The same observer calls
the country-rock in these mines a trachyte, which he found to
be very much decomposed in the upper levels, worked by the
Lydians. Small veins, cutting across the same volcanic rock,
were found to carry argentiferous galena blende, copper, and
iron pyrites with gold, all with a quartz gangue. An average
sample taken from a i to 2-ton lot of ore, assayed as follows:
Gold 13 dwt., and silver, soz. 13 dwt. Troy per ton; lead, 7.6
copper, 2.2, and zinc 2.7 per cent.

The Lydians could fairly claim to be the first users of coins
in history. This, in itself, bespeaks the abundance of the pre-
cious metals in that richly, endowed country. It was quite natural
that accumulations of gold and silver should eventually be bar-
ered for commodities brou^^ht from all over the world to this

144 MINERAL RESOURCES

meeting-point of the East and the West. To stamp the metals
with distinctive signs, and use them as a measure of value, was the
next step, and an easy on^ in the ordinary course of commer-
cial transactions.

The earliest products of the Lydian mints were issued during
the seventh century B. C, and were made, not of pure gold or
silver but of a compound of both, known as "elektron," in which
the ratio of gold to silver was four to one by weight. The name
is supposed to be derived from the identical Greek word, desig-
nating amber, which the native alloys of those metals somewhat
resemble in color. A century latter, gold and silver coins ap-
peared; and, no doubt, this change was associated with the dis-
covery of a method of parting the two metals. Gold and silver
generally occur in nature in alloys of various proportions, the
character f which is particularly evident where the veins con-
taining them are the ultimate manifestations of volcanic ac-
tivity. The Anatolian gold-field, for instance, belong to such a
region of vulcanism, where gold bearing veins, occuring in igne-
ous rocks, carry a noteworthy amount of silver. But, apart from
all extreme manifestations, the general phenomenon is, that metal-
lic gold occurs in nature generally alloyed with silver (and not
with copper.) So universal and so well-recognized is this phe-
nomenon, that the distinguished mineralogist, Breithaupt, Pro-
fessor of that science at Frieberg, classified native gold and
native silver as one species, ranging in composition from gold
with a trace of silver to silver with a trace of gold, and denied
the occurrence in nature of either metal without some alloy of
the other. The proportions of the two metals in native alloys
vary with the composition of the minerals from which they have
been reduced. It seems probable, therefore, that the "elektron"
of the Lydians was simply the native alloy characteristic of their
own district, and was adopted for coinage and commerce until
the discovery of a method of parting permitted the manufac-
turer of gold and silver coins separately.

PONTIC GOLD-FIELD. In the northeastern portion of Asia-
tic Turkey, and at the point of junction of three empires, the
snow-capped peak of a huge Tertiary volcano, familiarly known
as Mount Ararat, rising in majestic loneliness above all surround-
ing eminences, marks the center of a region characterized by re-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 145

peated concanic eruptions, and the point of intersection of two
main axis of high upHft. One of the latter sweeps westwardly, to
form a long mountain chain which borders all the northeastern
shore of Asia Minor, and within which gold-mining has been
actively carried on since proto-historic times.

An interesting clue to these very ancient operations is afforded
by the text of a portion of the second chaper of Genesis (vv.
10-12) :

"And a river went out of Eden to water the gardens ; and
from thence it was parted, and became four heads.

"The name of the first is' Pison ; that is it which compasseth
the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold.

"And the gold of that land is good ; there is bedellium and the
onyx stone."

By many Bible students, the river Pison has been identified
as the modem choruksu, running generally parallel to the east-
west extension of the coast. Its valley has been since time im^
memorial a region of exceeding fertility, and has also enjoyed,
thanks to the sheltering barrier formed by the elevated Pontic
range along the northern bank of the river, the added blessing
of immunity from the ravages of the bleak northern gales of
Russia. It is not surprising that the combination of such ad-
vantages awakened desire for their possession in ambitious lead-
ers of different periods; and many are the tales of struggle and
bloodshed over the ownership of these gold-fields.

One of these stories is repeated by Strabo, whose explorations
of the then known world at a time when traveling was beset
with innumerable difficulties, have made his name illustrious
among students of the geography of antiquity. It appears that
Alexander the Great, perhaps remembering his father's success-
ful mininm-ventures in Macedonia, received intimations of the
abundance of gold in the sambana district, which lay in the
province of Syspiritides (the modern Ispir), within the Pontic
productive area. Straightway he dispatched Menon, one of his
generals, at the head of an armed force, commissioned him to
secure possession of the wealth-yielding territory. The sturdy
natives, however resisted the great conqueror's designs regard-
ing lands which they justly regarded as their own, and having

146 MINERAL RESOURCES

routed the invaders, sent back to Alexander the head of Menon,
his general.

Some ieght ceituries later, gold-mines south of the harbor of
Trebizond, in the same district, became the subject of dispuite
between Justinian, the mighty Byzantine emperor, and Chosroes,
the King of Persia, his foe. At that time the workings, operated
on a very extensive scale, were furnishing abundant supplies of
the precious metal for the mint at Constantinople. Much of this
gold was won from placers along the banks of the Tchoruksu
and its tributaries, the latter having their sources in the southern
facets of the Pontic range.

Strabbo's copious notes here become again instructive. He says
that the natives recover gold by first straining the auriferous
muds through screens and subsequently spreading the undersize
over sheep-skins specially selected on account of their long fleece,
the shred of which serve to entangle the particles of metal.
Incidentally, it may be noted that the derivation of the appela-
tion "Land of the Golden Fleece," by which this northeastern
portion of Asiatic Turkey was designated in the oldest tales of
the Greek mythology, becomes self-suggestive. The corrobora-
tive testimony supplemented by the name of Cape Jason, applied
to a nearby promontory, tends to remove all shadow of doubt
regarding the exact location of the once-famous Eldorado.

The period of its original discovery, however, cannot be de-
termined as closely as its location. The earliest known record
is the mythical narrative of the Argonauts in search of the Golden
Fleece; and this story yields but a single credible fact — namely,
that, at some time in early Greek history, not unlikely about looo
B. C, yet perhaps a few centuries later, a band of adventurous
Greek immigrants decided to set forth and discover the country
from which they had received from time to time reports of the
existence of untold wealth in various forms.

There is no doubt that, from that time on, and far into the
fifth century B. C, the various Greek communities were actively
engaged in the exploration and colonization of the regions lying
east of their mainland. Such expansions in the course of the
national growth have invariably been the consequence of pros-
perity at home. It is not inconceivable that some of the hardier
and more indefatigable of these explorers surmounted the hard-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 147

ships attending travel on the turbulent waters of the Black
Sea, and succeeded in reaching portions of its southeastern shores.
What they saw there may be inferred from tales which they
brought back, enriched with the adornments required to fire the
imaginations of their countrymen. '

According to the version of Pliny, Strabo's younger contemi-
porary, and one of the best known naturalists of antiquity, the
Colchis, as he calls the Land of the Golden Fleece, was ruled,
previous to the coming of the Argonauts, by Selances, a descend-
ant of Actes. This ruler is said to have discovered extensive
gold-placers in the territory inhabited by the Suanes, who lived
within the pale of the Colchides. "The whole country, however,
is renowned for its gold-fields," is Pliny's final comment in con-
nection with this description.

TAURic GOLD FIELDS. Gold-bcaring quartz veins have been
discovered in the Bulgar-Dagh range, in southern Ana-
tolia (Cilician Taurus). The gold here occurs also associated
with the argentiferous-lead ores yielding 30 to 40 grams per ton.

At Harpoot, in Armenian Taurus, alluvial gold has been found
in Khutel-dagh and Kilvenek on the banks of Murad.

Abundant gold mines lie in Shirvan Mountains, south of Lake
Van.

In the sands of Chorokh River and in the districts of Batum
and Sasun gold is found associated with platinum.

Alluvial gold is found now in the tributaries of lower Chorokh.
There it is associated with palladium, rhodium, osmium, and
Irridium, all of which arises from gold bearing copper gravels
and serpentine rocks.

The gold in the alluvian of Aliaji streams (west Karabagh)
reaches an amount, namely, 0.264 grains per ton. It arises doubt-
less from the west Karabagh chain ; far from Agarak there is a
piece of electrum which contains 72.22 per cent, gold and 22.2
per cent, silver.

A little gold has been gotten from the copper ore of Kalakent
and in the hornblende diorite which intrudes the Nummulite lime.

This precious metal is also recovered as by-product in the ex-
traction of other ores. The descriptions of which will be found
under respective headings of the copper, argentiferous-lead, and
arsenic as occurring associated with these ores.

148 MINERAL RESOURCES

FUTURE PROSPECTS. To our own generation the point of in-
terest in connection with any of these gold-fields lies in
the possibility of a resumption of exploitation of the hitherto
abandoned workings. This does not necessarily imply that gold
will again be the chief metal recovered. These have been nu-
merous instances where mines, at one time gold-producing, have
eventually turned out to be great producers of copper. Two
noteworthy instances of such a sequence are furnished by two
of the world's largest present deposits of low-grade copper sul-
phides : the Mount Lyell mine in Tasmania, aiid the Rio Tinto
in the Spanish province of Huelva. The former came into pro-
minence in 1881, and began to attract attention as a gold-
producer in the incipient stage of its development. With re-
gard to the latter, Strabo, to whom frequent reference must
perforce be made in connection with ancient mining, has given
us an enhusiatic account of the gold-production in southern Spain
on the site of what are now the famoiis and immensely pro-
ductive copper-mines of Rio Tinto.

Another instance of the same nature occurs at the Mount Mor-
gan mine in Australia. Here the ore at very shallow depth was
rich in gold and carried only insignificant quantities of copper.
Lower down, however, the percentage of the latter metal grew
considerably higher.

There are some signs of the recurrence of the same phenomenon
in the Pontic gold-field. Copper has been mined during the past
few centuries at various points within this metalliferous province.
Although these operations have been desultory, there is ground
to suspect the existence of a rich copper-belt parallel with the
northeastern coastal development of Asia Minor. Kerassons
is, among others, a noteworthy locality in which copper-ores in
large bodies have been reported on various occasions. The re-
covery of gold as a by-product in the smelting of such ores is by
no means impossible.

Work on the Anatolian gold-field, on the other hand, has re-
mained practically at a stand-still since the beginning of the
Christian era. Perhaps detailed investigation of the region will lead
to interesting industrial developments; and, while these ancient
gold-fields may never again yield such quantities of the pre-
cious metal as they gave to the miners of antiquity, they may

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 149

produce, through development of lower depths, of the baser
metals, a greater treasure than they conferred on former gen-
erations.

ANNUAL GOLD PRODUCTION.

Years Kilos Worth in dollars

1891 10 7000

1892 ID 7000

1893 10 1000

1894 12 8000

189s 12 8000

1896 12 8000

1897 12 8000

1898 12 8000

1899 12 7975

1900 1 1.6 7751

1901 11.6 7751

1902 20 13292

1903 31 20607

1904 31 20607

1905 43-5 29000

1906 44 29,000

SILVER.

In Anatolia and Armenia there are many old silver mines, but
nearly all of them are idle, not because they have been ex-
hausted, but there was no inducement to work them under ex-
isting government.

Silver mostly occurs associated with lead and zinc. Consider-
able amount of silver is also extracted from gold mines. The
chief mines of Argentiferous-galena exist in the provinces of
Trebizond, Erzerum, Diarbekr, Adana, and Hudavendighar.

Gumush-hane, near Trebizond, is probably the richest of these
and has produced lead and silver since remote times. This lo-
cality of Argentiferous galena has been considered like a School
of Mines of Constantinople, and a tentative object of recent re-
sumption.

ISO MINERAL RESOURCES

Following the old descriptions of this mine, given by Hamilton
and commented by Tchihatcheff, here Tertiary and Cretaceous
limestones, marls and the chalk formations are penetrated by
granite rocks, and both the chalk formations and the granite are
crossed by veins of silver bearing galena. But the ore is richer
in the eruptive rocks. Hundred grams of extracted silver yields
4 grams of gold.

Bakr-Kuressi, on the south of Ineboli, has been a famous local-
ity on account of its argentiferous copper mines.

The district of Kara-Hissar is also known to be rich in silver
ores, and two foreign companies have acquired rights there since
1880. The Asia Minor Company have had a concession concern-
ing six square miles where 20 veins have been located and some
development done. The veins are chiefly found in the andesite
and carry argentiferous galena. One of the mines opened has
a vein 2 meters thick on which several levels have been run. The
best ores carry about 70 per cent, lead, with from 1.5 Kg. silver
to the ton. Most of these discoveries have been based on the
ancient workings. The workings are not being extended.

In the Derekoi Valley, in the same district, there was also a
concession granted for 99 years to an English company. This
covered 24 sq. miles. Exploration had shown several veins exist-
ing in andesite and porpyhry, carrying lead, silver and sometimes
little gold.

At Katirlan three veins have been opened and some develop-
ment work done. The concession was granted in 1871, and work
was carried on to 1883, when it was suspended. It was resumed
in 1892, but has lately been again stopped. The same company
worked the mines at Keshab.

Silver mines have also been Worked at Sivas and Avanos.

In Khortakal, near Ispir (south of Chorokh river) a rich
argentiferous galena is exploited which outcrops in Baiburt, be-
tween Trebizond and Erzerum, in the same basin of Chorokh on
the west.

About 20 km. southeast of Baibourt is found Maden-Khan mine
which occupies an area of about 400 M. It is in the vicinity of
green rocks crossing Lower Cretaceous formations. The copper
is also associated with these rocks.

In the valley if Imerkhim, near Artvin, and further south,

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

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MINERAL RESOURCES

in Khordalan, the argentiferous lead is found associated with
copper, zinc and with little manganese and traces of gold.

Going back to the west, on the western bank of Kizil-Irmak,
following a meridional zone, we find the argentiferous lead mines
at Denek-Maden, which is since long time, abandoned.

Toward the north, Karahissar presents a silver mine, men-
tioned sometimes by Barth. Further to east on the west of
Sivas and Akdagh, between Amasia and Kaisarie, and interest-
ing galena deposit associated with pyrite, found in crystalline
calcareous rocks, alternating with mica, schists and amphibolic-
schists, traversed by granites. The minerals in the vicinity pre-
sent a mass which on the surface, is filled with oxide of iron
and pyrite, with ochreous matters, and associated with calamine
which does not outcrop nicely.

Kebban Maden.- — ^ About i8 miles west-northwest from Khar-
put, a group of limestone mountains fills up all the space inter-
vening between this point and the Euphrates to the north and
West, and through these a deeply cut valley runs to the north-

GEOLOGICAL VIEW OF SILVER MINE AT KEBAN.

west extending for six or eight miles to the Euphrates, where
for some distance around the point of confluence are worked the
silver mines of Kebban Maden. The mountains around the silver
mines exhibit in general bare surfaces of gray, compact lime-
stones, or of argillaceous and chloritic slates, both of which ap-
pear to be without fossils. On both sides of the valley in which
the town is situated, rise sharp peaks of a hard feldspathic por-
phyry, containing large crystals of pink common feldspar and
sometimes exhibiting a slaty texture with the crystallized parts
so ill defined that where it occurs in contact with the clay slates

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 153

it is difficult to assign to each its proper boundary. This erup-
tive rock also makes its appearance more frequently in the bot-
tom of the neighboring valleys. A sharp ridge of the same rock
along the back of the east side of the town and there forms bold
precipices facing the river virhich flows almost beneath. A little
farther to the north the porphyry is interrupted by a band of
ochreous matter which probably before the formation of the val-
ley of Kebban communicated vy^ith a similar patch on the oppo-
site side, forming a lode or dike. The surface of hills as well
as here and there on the opposite side of the Euphrates are cov-
ered with innumerable rubbish heaps formed in attempts to open
mines which have already been pushed more than two or three
feet in the ground. The mines worked lie beyond the ridge on
the west of the town and are even more miserably directed than
those of Arghaneh. The edit mouths are driven through shale
and limestone whfch here and there shows on the surface small
strings and lumps of galena ; but so irregular and dirty are the
works that little can be seen underground to inform us how the
ore occurs. The lower mines exhibited some rich portions of
nearly pure argentiferous sulphuret of lead but it nowhere had
the appearance of occuring in veins. In the upper mine, a large
quantity of soft iron ochre, or sort of gossan mingled with threads
of gypsum, is excavated as ore, being found to contain Hke the
galena from an ounce to an ounce and a half of silver in 100 lbs.
Near the junction of two species of rock, whether limestone or
shale, or one of these with porphyry, the ore is more plentifully
disseminated than elswhere.

This is a complex deposit of Argentiferous galena, blende and
pyrite with antimony. In higher parts the sulphide and the chlor-
ide of silver, anglesite, gypsum, etc., exist abundantly. This mine
had been exploited by German engineers in 1847 and abandoned
soon after.

Bulgar-Maden. — The Bulgar-Maden lies in the Cilician Taurus
sixty-five Km. north of Mersina. The beds toward the south are
sligtly inclined containing no eruptive rocks; but toward the
north occurs many plicated eruptive rocks which are followed
by microgranulites, porphyrites of relatively ancient origin, Cre-
taceous-Eocene serpentines, and Tertiary discharges, extending
toward north, in the Argeaus mountains.

154

MINERAL RESOURCES

The stratified series starts with the schists in glaucophane, suc-
ceeding he calc-schists and dolomitic calcareous rocks the age

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ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 155

of which is not exactly determined. Briss includes them in the
devonian of Anti-Taurus.

The central calcareous rocks of the chain presents all the char-
acters of coral reef formations. On the north it becomes more
marly and much more stretched in the action of ebbing, and
sharply folded with ruptures.

To the Devonian axis is applied the Tertiary formations on both
sides, showing a distinct undulation in the dolomitic calcareous
rocks. The Hercyenan Movement is here obvious, same way as
in the Alpian chains.

These Tertiary deposits include in the Miocene gypsum the
Lower Eocene Nummulitic beds, the sandstones on the north, the
Oligocene marly calcareous rocks on the south. Thus the dissim-
ilarity of Eocene rocks on both sides gives clue for the existence
of two separate seas of distinct sedimentation

Toward the northwest the dolomite and porphyrites of Ylang-
dagh rise up against the folded Tertiary rocks with a fault fol-
lowing the abundant sources of the thermal of Elidja. Near
Nigde the Tertiary beds are folded, like those on the south, in a
slight degree. These roll down towards the plains of Great Salt
Desert, and disappear under the lavas and dolomites of northeast,
or under the Pliocene sediments.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF BULGAR-MADEN.

The Bulgar-dagh mine is geographically located in a valley,
the road of which is opened from Chifte-khan, at the junction of
main road leading from Nigde to Taurus.

156 MINERAL RESOURCES

The hills upon the north flank of the mine, presents the Devon-
ian dolomitic calcareous rocks overlying the schists and nummu-
litic grits. The calcareous rocks are traversed by microgranulites
playing a great role in the dislocation of these metallizing waters.
These microgranulites form irregular veins, either round or len-
ticular, in the calcareous rocks. The serpentine rocks of Eocene
age appear in different points in the ordinary condition of the
formation.

The primitive form of metallization is difficultily visible; be-
cause the beds are subjected to an extensive alteration.

The metalliferous formation extends about lOO km. up to the
contact of calcareous rocks with Eocene schists. The schists
are traversed by serpentine from which the minerals are derived
according to Briss.

Beyond this contact of calcearous rocks with schists, there is
same way, a contact of calcareous rocks with microgranulites
which is characteristic phenomena observed in the ore bodies of
Leadville, Colorado. The zone of this microgranulite is pursued
in all extension in the metallic formation of Bulgar-Maden. Some
masses of minerals are filled in the pockets of this microgranu-
lite which miners call Beyaz-tash (white stone).

This is a bed of contact which is subjected to alteration
below the level of the valley. This change, according to Briss,
is due to subterranean circulating waters, in contact with metal-
lic sulphures. The traces of many subterranean rivers, ,now
dried, are still there visible.

The deposit, situated on an altitude of about 2000 to 2400
meters, is divided into two zones. The first, (galleries of Seru-
sat, Tnoalle, Yourkanji, Teki-deresi), approached by the axis
of the mountain and is deep-seated, and less altered. The more
compact limestones are more replaced by galena. The second is
exterior and more superficial and offers big grots. The soil in
grots represents a sandy and muddy deposit of lead carbonate
mixed with red, yellow, and black oxide of iron. The pockets
in calcareous rocks are filled with metals, accumulated without
any order. There, it exists in a series of natural halls, and in
arches furnished with stalactite of calcareous rocks, and cov-
ered with a recent and contemporaneous transparent crust of
carbonate of lime.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 157

The deposits, in this special natural phenomena, are extraor-
dinarily rich in lead, silver and gold. Aicording to Briss, the
medium tenor of ore contains 20 per cent, lead; 65 Kg. silver
and 30 to 40 gr. gold per ton of lead. This tenor of gold gives
clue for the existence of pyrite from which the iron oxide is
produced.

The argentiferous-galena is exploited in Bereketly-Maden,
in the vicinity of Bulgar-Dagh, on the north east of Arpa-Ouch-
ourou, in Ak-dagh, extreme west of Ala-dagh; in Farach or
ourou, in Ak-dagh, extreme west of Ala-dagh; in Bulgar-dagh
and Mount Argeas; in Gulek, south of Bulgar-dagh. Here, de-
posits of lead and silver are found in a system of calcareous
rocks alternating with talc-schists and serpentine which according
to Tchihatcheff they belong to Eocene.

The exploitation of argentiferous-auriferous lead of Bulgar-
dagh is conducted by many specialists but the developments have
been made in a very rudimentary ,way, without any plan, with
imagination, and absolute inexperience. Turk government has
never followed the advices and directions given by French en-
gineers, and the extraction was soon suspended. The extraction
attained to about 2000 tons in 1892.

This mine was Turkish state property, has some mining so far
little developed in the argentiferous cementation zone. The
bed stretches for some 20 Km. in length and lies only 16 Km. as
the crow flies from the Baghdad railway.

Silver-lead of Hudavendighar. — ^The deposits of the district of
Mysia have been investigated by many mining engineers for a
long time. The direction of the beds is to north-east and ex-
tend from Smyrna to the Sea of Marmora. The essential zone
of metallization of silver seems to be augite-andesite rocks in
contact with limestones. According to the observations of
Messrs. Weiss and Berg this contact had -not only played here
a physical role like the ■ schists and calcareous rocks of Thasos,
in Laurion, in Sardaiga, but andesite growth has occasionally
developed in the embedded calcareous rocks, a gangue of gran-
ite, angite, epidote and anorthite, among whose the metallic sul-
phur is crystallized contemporaneously.

All theories on the origin seem incontestibly to be a Ter-
tiary metallization, because it is posterior to andesite.

158 MINERAL RESOURCES

According to the descriptions of Messrs. Weiss and Berg, the
metallic sulphur and silica are developed in contact with augite,
andesite, and carboniferous calcareous rock, in a zone from 2 to
5 meters large. A similar case is observed by Bukowski in the
great part of Greek Archipelago and in Thrace. Along this
contact zone the calcareous rocks have undergone metamorphism
and have been silicified. The microscopic examination of this
rock made by Berg, shows well the original association of sul-
phur with the metamorphic minerals. The Umestones are after-
wards replaced by silicates a very small proportion of which
hardly shows the following order of consolidation: first epido-
lite, second, garnet with pyrite, third, anorthosite with galena.
The metallic sulphurs are developed in nests or masses, in the
vicinity of the contact, either in calcareous rocks or specially
in the same andesite, where it has. met with some good nests
in the fissures, in which they follow a columnar structure. Some-
times a pocket of very hard and compact galena is found em-
bedded in the andesite, 26 meters long, from 3 to 5 meters wide,
and 6 meters deep. After Weiss is found a galena of columnar
structure and many meters thick.

It is observed that the case is most favorable in those places
where the calcareous rocks lie below the andesite. This con-
tact is frequtntly marked by a kind of argillaceous and brecci-
ated residue (salbande) which acknowledge the posterior sliding.

In the entire system of the deposits manganese also occurs
near the contact of augite andesite, with calcareous rocks. This
in relation with the calcareous formations, sometimes attain to
100 meters in size. It proves mostly the superficial alteration.
The pyrolusite is mixed there with the argillaceous residue of the
dissolution of calcareous rocks.

Balia-Maden. — The best developed silver-lead mines of
Hudavendighar province occurs near the town of Balia, at a dis-
tance of about 100 km. from the Sea of Marmora. The ore
occurs in a contact-zone between Tertiary augite-andesite and
Carboniferous limestone. The contact zone varies between 6 and
16 ft. in width. The limestone at the contact is silicified but
barren. In the andesite, on the other hand, are found accumu-
lations of pure galena which seem to be connected with fissures
parallel to contact zone. The ores carry galena, blende, and py-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 159

rite, and contain on an average from 16 to 20 per cent, lead and
8 per cent. zinc.

The plant at Balia comprises a mill of 400 tons daily capacity
for the production of lead concentrate, and a Wetherhill magnetic
separator for making a blende product. The smelting works are
provided with a water-jacket lead-furnace of rectangular sec-
tion, I by 1.8 meters, of 100 tons daily capacity. The slags pro-
duced contain 20 per cent, lead, 20 grains silver, and 10 per
cent, zinc per ton.

In 1903, the mine output amounted to 63000 tons, yielding
7600 tons of pig lead, with an average content of 97.5 per cent,
lead and 1950 grams silver per ton. Output in 1913, 13076 tons
of crude lead and 5000 tons of zinc ore, with 42 per cent. zinc.
Amount of ore shown by the latest exploration, made by Germans
(information from Gen. Beyschlag, 1919) 300,000 to 350,000
tons; further explorations may show more.

The pig lead is transported to the coast, whence it is shipped
to Frankfort in Germany for refining. Besides the lead pro-
duct, about 200 tons of zinc concentrate, assaying 41% zinc is
produced annually. The company owns and operates the lig-
nite coal mines at Manjilik. Here an electric power station has
been installed. Generators having a total capacity of 700 horse-
power produce the current, which is transmitted to Balia and
the mines. The smelting coasts, including preliminary roasting,
are about 60 francs (11.40 dollars) per ton of ore treated. Mill-
ing costs amount to 3.8 francs (72 cents).

South of Kurmasti, two deposits of silver-lead ores are
known, at Dumbeltek and Kesikdere. An inspection of the aban-
doned working at this point reveals geological conditions simi-
lar to those observable at Balia.

About 25 km. northwest of Soma there exists a district from
which, according to reports, galena float has been found in as-
socation with blende and calcopyrite. The ores occur in decom-
posed andesite, a kind of stockwork containing veinlets of calcite
and barite, from i to 5 meters large, where exist the galena, cupri-
ferous pyrite and pyrite. The rocks composed of some lenticu-
lar quartz and braunspath with galena and blende 5 meters wide
30 meters long. On this point has never been made a tentative
exploitation.

i6o MINERAL RESOURCES

A very similar bed exists at 6 km. south of Beigerlerkoi, equal-
ly galena and blende with barite in trachyte.

At 10 km. distance from Perghama an antique work carries
argentiferous galena, with masses of calamine. Some galena and
cupriferous pyrite are forming pockets or tracing the columns in
calcareous rocks in the. vicinity of a trachyte in the same condi-
tions as in Balia-Maden.

At 45 km. distance from east-southeast of Broussa, 3 km.
from Hairie, a region represents antimony, a pyriteous mass of
10 meters large, embedded in the: calcareous rocks, containing a
little disseminated cupriferous pyrite. Not very far from there,
in calacareous rocks exists two beds of pyrite with galena, in-
terstratified in a series of calcareous rocks and schists, inter-
calated one between the porphyry, the other between the por-
phyry and calcareous rocks.

Towards east, between Nicie (Isnik) and Isnik-cheir, near
Kerasliyaila, the veins of quartz carrying pyrite, galena and a
little cupriferous pyrite are cut in open air ; these are intercal-
ated between the decomposed porphyry. These veins are very
poor.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF SILVER.
Year Value Kilos

1891 $55,000 1,323

1892 55,000 1,323

1893 159.236 6,334

1894 30,000 1,516

189s 33.821 1,516

1896 32,821 1,525

1897 29,314 1,515

1898 28,927 1,525

1899 38.900 2,033

1900 40,139 2,033

1901 38,531 2,033

1902 250,577 14,942

1903 250,305 14,566

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA i6[

1904 345.420 17,022

1905 367>35i 17.107

1906 367.351 17.107

1909 7.791

1910 7.791

COPPER.

The provinces of Trebizond (Pontus), Caucasian Armenia, and
Diarbekr are for a long time known as the best localities of rich
copper deposits. The copper ores of Trebizond form naturally
the continuation of the Caucasian deposits.

On the south of Ineboli,an ancient mine of argentiferous cop-
per, in Bakir-Kuressi, has been famous since ancient times.

Six different properties have been operated in the vicinity of
the sea-port of Sinope.

Traversing the course of the Kizil Irmak, we find, on the south
of Kerasun, a group of ores composed of veins of various filHngs,
generally embedded in the crystalline schists. Among these are
the copper mines of Maden-Koi, Gelivera, Sarababa, and Ispie.
At Ispie important exploration is being conducted on a copper
concession thickly studded with old workings. They are con-
trolled by an Anglo-native Company. The ore bodies were
worked superficially 800-900 years ago. Within the cast of 25
years, French and English syndicates have done considerable de-
velopment work on these properties.

Little further toward east and on the south of Trebizond, a
high grade copper ore is reported from Maden Khan, from vicin-
ity of the towns of Gumushkhane and Karahissar. In this dis-
trict the ore exists in the form of veins with copper gravels and
pyrite, silver bearing galena and sulphate of zinc which cross a
propylitized augite-andesite. Here and there are volcanic tuffs
impregnated with copper gravels and which contain concretions
rich in sulphate of zinc (39 per cent). In other cases there are
contact conditions involving sulphides (copper gravels, pyrite and
tremolite) in masses of Cretaceous limestones which have been
engulfed in eruptive rocks.

Archavatal is one of the most important centers for getting
copper and manganese. Old rocks are plentiful here.

In the Artvin district south of Datum the niines of Zangul

i62 MINERAL RESOURCES

and Ergha have been worked with success. Here are veins and
masses of Granophyr passing to a diabase porphyry in a certain
sandstone and both rocks are penetrated by numerous quartz
veins which contain irregular ore bodies of different sulphides,
especially those of copper and iron associated with lead carbonate
and still less zinc blende.

Khvartz-khana, near Artvin, had a mining and smelting works,
ready before the war, but never operated, belonging to the Sie-
mens family and capable of yielding 2000 tons of copper a year.
In the same region an American company possesses a mining and
smelting works at Dzanzul, which produced 3,030 tons of copper
in 1912 and 4000 tons in 1914, i. e., one third of the whole Cau-
casus output, and one tenth of that of Russia.

Karabagh Zone. — At Migri, the copper is found associated with
molybdenite and iron pyrite in granulites.

The same group of Copper-Molybdenite exists at Hedgenan.
The rest of the mineralization is formed especially of copper, in
the southeast part of western Karabagh, in Pyrdandi, Okchai,
Katar, Barabatoun, Shikhaus, Gavart, Astamal, Jivanik, etc. In
dififerent points these chalcopyrite are auriferous and associted
with galena and blendes.

On the flank of Sahend copper, lead, antimony and arsenic are
found associated with each other.

The oldest rocks of Jurassic age of Caucasian chain are believed
to contain the most important metalliferous deposits.

The three copper producing centres of the region are Kedabag,
26.5 miles from Daliar Station, on the Tiflis-Baku railroad,
Allah-Verdi, on the railway from Tifiis to Alexandropol ; and
thirdly, the Elvach or Zangezur district, 130 miles from Elvach,
on the first named railway.

Kedabag. — This is the largest producing centre of the Trans-
caucasia, and has the largest smelting plant. It hes 26.5 miles
from, and 450 ft. above Dalliar, the nearest railroad station on
the Baku line. The deposits are found in the side of Copper
Mountain Mio-Dagh, 5922 ft. high, occurring as lenticular mass-
es found in a belt of quartz-porphyry 3500 ft. long and 1700 ft.
wide, with diorite to the south and diabase porphyry on the west.

The later rock occurs in dikes cutting the quartz-porphyry,
and also as a mass partly covering the ore-bearing rock and form-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

163

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i64 MINERAL RESOURCES

ing the mountain summit. A peculiar plagioclase-pyroxene-gar-
net rock, called "Kedabegite" is the youngest rock of the district,
and is always near the ores.

The ore bodies are lenticular in shape; i6 of them are known,
varying in size from 33 ft to 820 ft. in length, 16.5 ft. to 165 ft.
in width, and 6.5 ft. to 165 ft. in thickness. These lenses do
not outcrop, but occur 120 ft. to 420 ft. below the surface.

The ore consists of pyrite and pyrrhotite carrying chalcnpyrite
and some covellite, and rarely copper glance. The ore shows
gradual transitions to the country rock, and the lenses sometimes
consist of rock seamed by veinlets of pyrites ore. There are,
however, no true fahlbands.

The richer ore is found against the hanging wall and fades out
toward the foot into barren material. The richer copper ores in-
variably occur with zinc-blende, and carry considerable barite and
quartz. Galena and magnetite are rare constituents of the ore.

The ores vary from 3 to 5 per cent, copper, with .005 to .008
per cent, precious metals, of which .4 is gold. These metals occur
in the Chalcopyrite. The 7 per cent, or better ore is smelted in
the reverberatory furnaces, using petroleum as fuel, to a 23 to
30 per cent, matter, which is re-treated in blast furnaces to an 88
88 to 90 per cent, blister copper that carries 2 lb. silver and 0.5
oz. gold per ton. The low grade ore is leached and in part sold
for acid manufacturers.

The Galizuski mine is at Elizabethpol. It produced 1,390,095
lbs., in 1899.

The Dzansulkli mine in Tiflis (Kutais) has recently been ac-
quired by the Caucasus Copper Company, an English concern.
The deposit is a lens 260 to 500 ft. wide, 100 ft. long, and opened
for 164 ft. in depth. It consists of pyrite carrying Chalcopyrite,
with a quartz gangue, and averages 3 per cent, copper with no
precious metals. The output for 1889 was 505,568 lbs. This is
too siHcious to smelt, as fluxes are expensive. It will be con-
centrated by magnetic separators, experience showing excessive
slimes and losses with wet concentration. A 100-ton plant is
planned.

Elvach District. — The Sunik mines are the largest of the dis-
trict and one of the three largest producers of the transcaucasian
region. They are located near the Persian frontier, 130 miles

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 165

from Elvach, the nearest station on the Transcaucasian railway
line. The ores occur in quartz veins carrying chalcopyrite as-
sociated with bomite, tetrahedrite.pyrite, and rarely native cop-
per. Small values in gold and silver occur.

There are 20 veins varying from 7 inches to 4 feet in width
and clustered, in a range running northwest and southeast,
through dark green andesite and black diabase. Fault fissures
cut the veins and country rock.

The old workings are primitive, narrow adits running 100 to
300 feet into the hillside, and both ore and water were carried in
leather bags.

The copper ores occur in quartz veins. The ore consists of
chalcopyrite, and bomite, tetrahedrite and pyrite, with accessory
blende and galena, the usual oxide ores and native copper being
present. Old shafts 130 feet deep attest the energy of the ancient
miners, when ores below 15 per cent, were not workable.

The ore occurs in northwest and southeast quartz veins cut-
ting andesite, and in crush zones or breccias between syenites and
diorites, the ores carrying copper glance, galena, and sphalerite.
The veins have a proved length of 700 feet in depth. The output
for 1900 was 800 tons of copper. Only 7 per cent, ore or better
is treated, and this is smelted at Sounthsy for 5.8 dollars a ton.
Mining costs 8.08 dollars per ton.

The Allah-Verdi district lies in a very mountaineous tract about
50 miles south of Tiflis. The ores occur in pockets in fractured
dacite and quartz andesite. It is pyritic and treated by modified
pyrite smelting. There are three deposits, Akhtala, Allah- Verdi,
and Chambuk. An enrichment near gypsum masses is noted. Ga-
lena rich in gold and silver occur near the uppermost part of the
first-named deposits. The mines, though ancient, have but recent-
ly reopened.

In 1902 the Transcaucasia produced 106,718 tons or ore, yield-
ing 3438 tons of copper.

Arganeh-Maden. — An important copper mine is found in the
Taurus mountains at Arganeh, (district of Diarbekr). Arganeh,
lies about halfway between Kharput and Diarbekr. The space
comprised between Kharput which measures about 50 miles from
the mines presents a series of limestone and marly slates belong-
ing to Cretaceous period. The higher portion generally consists

1 66

MINERAL RESOURCES

of calcareous strata abounding in Nummulites, while the marls,
■vVhich for the most part occupy a lower position are highly meta-
morphic, being changed in color and frequently hardened to the
consistency of siliceous slate. Below both although sometimes
occurring in dikes high as the mountain sides, appear rocks of dial-
lage and actinolite in great variety. To the west of Kharput
the mountains exhibit a dififerent character. Their chief mass
is composed of limestones and slates of an older period. The
eruptive rocks occurring in juxtaposition with these are syenites,
diallage rocks, basalt, similar to that of the plateau of Diarbekr.
The city of Diarbekr is but on an extensive plain covered with

MINING DISTRICT OF ARGANEH-MADEN.

1. Dialage rocks.

2. Sulphuret of iron and copper.

3. Limestone.

4. Metamorphic slates.

rough fragments of basalt, resting upon more compact masses of
the same rock. On the southwest this igneous formation extends
beyond the town of Severek, a distance of 60 miles from the Tigris
and in approaching the mountains to the northwest we find the
same series continued for 20 miles. At Arganeh the southern
outposts of the Taurus present their most remarkable feature.
The serpentine is laid at base of Arganeh Maden, in the valley of
the Tigris, and in the ravine formed by a rivulet which pours in
its tribute close below the town. The rocks are generally full of
leakage, and contain the magnesian minerals also. The breccia
appears to constitute the outer wall of the cupriferous mass at
Arganeh Maden. This mass though it continues in depth to the
level of waters of Tigris, has not hitherto been opened anywhere
except on the surface of the mountain above the town. It appears
to be but one large lump of ore consisting of double sulphurets

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 167

of copper and iron, planted amid these serpentines or perhaps be-
tween them and the marls. In the mines not the slightest charac-
ter of a vein or bed was to be seen, but floor and walls consisted
entirely of solid pyrite, diversified only by stalactite cuttings of
blue and green vitriol. This extended to a depth of 60-70 feet
but in addition 20-30 feet which had been excavated were filled
with water. The shafts are scatteded irregularly over a part of
the mountain which is almost level and is about 300 feet in dia-m-
eter and since in all of these shafts the same appearance are pre-
sented, we may be justified in considering the ore as forming
rather an isolated mass than as belonging either to a bed or lode.
The pyrite varies so much in quantity that a large proportion is
left untouched by the miners, not repaying them for working. In
general, the ore contains from 10-20 per cent, of copper, while
the better sort rises 20-20 per cent., and occasionally a little vitre-
ous copper on pure sulphuret occurs, when the percentage is much
higher.

From all accounts very high-grade ore is mined at this point
within <an area of 12 km. square. The deposit is known to have
been exploited since the year 1096 A. D. During recent years,
operations have been carried on intermittently by the Government,
both on a leasing system and by direct management. In 1874 this
mine was reopened under the direction of Austrian engineers and
in 1896 under the Italian egineers, but closed on account of no
capital. Cuinet gives the following analysis of this ore. Cu 30%,
Fe 40%, S 30%. Weed states that the ore is high-grade, carry-
ing from 10 to 12% Cu. Mining is conducted in the rriost primi-
tive fashion. The ore is broken to nut size, conical heaps of the
broken material are built up and covered with wood to which fire
is set. This roasting lasts three days, and is succeeded by a simi-
lar operation on the product of the first roast. The resulting
matter, containing 25 to 30 copper, is smelted in closed kilns from
which the "black copper," as it is known to the trade, is finally
derived. All of this black copper is transported on camel-back
to Tokat, where it is refined and subsequently shipped to the
sea-port of Alexandretta. The cost of mining and smelting is
estimated at less than 3c. per pound, this being the price paid by
the Government, which so far, has reseved for itself the sole
right of purchasing the mattes. Transportation from Tokat to

i68 MINERAL RESOURCES

Alexandretta costs 2c. per pound.

According to recent researches of Germans, the ore does not go
very deep, and that the extent of principal bed is equivalent to
1.7 to 2 million tons.

Some old copper mines at Tilek on the south and west exten-
sion of the Dujik mountain in Dersim are of special interest be-
cause of association of tin with the rich copper ore.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION.
Years Metric Tons.

1897 326

1900 2341

1901 1665

1902 1 1 18

1903 1422

1904 965

1905 711

1906 432

IRON.

There are extensive deposits of iron ores in Anatolia and Ar-
menia, but the old iron industry is entrely dead, and the Euro-
pean companies did not invest the capital necessary to build blast
furnaces.

Toward the east of Trebizond, along the axis of diorite, out-
crops a bed of iron ores, in the valley of Kalo-potamos at Demir-
dagh. This deposit which has relation to green rocks, is espe-
cially noted in reason of historical traditions calling this region
of Khalybs as the cradle of the metallurgy of iron.

The Damir-Tash on the left bank of the Bolnis River (Som-
ketian) shows the intersection of two N. N. — iS. S. E. W. trend-
ing systems of hematite wth 23-60 per cent, iron, in Turonian
limestone.

Similar conditions obtained at Sizimadeni on the southern ex-
tension of the same N. N. W. — S. S. E. line. The hematite was
extensively mined.

Still further south in the Dybakli pass between Varatal and

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

169

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170 MINERAL RESOURCES

Miskhan on the south side of the Pambak chain appear hematite
veins and nests in the chloritized contact zone in pyroxene por-
phyry.

A thin spreading scale magnetite mass exists in an augite epi-
dote garnet rock at Dashkessen, in the Gokcha chain.

A very pure hematite has been obtained from the nearby Bo-
zantel.

At Chinarii, not far from EHzabethpol the iron is 2.2 meters
thick and affords up to 65 per cent. iron.

Considerable beds of limonite and magnetite exist on Kishala
plateau (east Karabagh.)

Iron glance is obtained in the Talori mines in Taurus.

In the vicinity of Diabekir, in the valley of Tigris River,
sands of magnetite are existing. These mechanical preparations
executed on volcanic rocks where the tenor of iron oxide is very
notable as existing in different localities of Armenia playing a
great role in primitive metallurgy.

Cilicia is an important district containing the richest ore bodies
of iron and well known for its old iron industry long time in the
past. The chief mines are situated in the Bulgar-Dagh, Bierout-
Dagh (Zeitun), in the vicinity of Aleppo and Belen. All these
mines occur in the limestone in contact with serpentine rocks.

In Bulgar-dagh, in Cilician Taurus veins of limonite occur in
limestone (see description of Bulgar-Maden). In the same
range, at diflferent points, there are extensive beds of limonite
and hematite. Some of them have been mined at different times.
There were formerly furnaces in this region.

On the slopes of Beirout-Dagh, 15 miles from Zeitun to north-
east, at the foot of eastern slope of Anti-Tuarus, exists an ex-
tensive deposit of high-grade hematite. This is known to the
blacksmiths throughout the Syria and Mesopotamia as obtaining
their iron from the natives working these deposits.

The natives have been smelting the iron ore in an imaginarily
built blast furnace, using the woods cut from neighboring forests
as fuel, and the blast was supplied by a large pair of bellows
operated by two especially trained bears.

This working was abandoned 25 years ago, on account of
political troubles. This is one of the least visited locations by
foreign engineers and research men, on account of its inaccess-

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 171

ible location and unfavorable political conditions.

Continuing the chains of Anti-Taurus we find an abundant de-
posit of hematite in the veins of the mica schists and argillace-
ous rocks with calcareous intercalations on the side of Kozan-
dagh. This region has also been very difficult to approach on ac-
count of unfavorable political conditions.

Tchihatcheff has shown long ago the existence of carbonifer-
ous coal beds either in the vicinity of Zeitun iron mine or Kozan-
dagh.

Iron mines are also worked in the vicinity of Aleppo.

In eastern Asia Minor iron ores have been discovered at Vierla
and Bazar-Koi.

Magnetic iron beds are surveyed by Germans during war, at
Ayasmund north of Smyrna; many other occurrences, specially
the red iron stone passing into emery are found in this neigh-
hood.

CHROME.

Asia Minor has been for many years the most important pro^
ducer of chromite in the world. At least 120 places have been
named where chrome occurs; these are mostly in the province
of Broussa, Aiden, Konia, Angora, Adana, Aleppo, Diarkebir,
etc. The most important mines being in Broussa in Makri, pro-
vince of Hudavendighar, and in Antioch near Aleppo and Isken-
deroun.

The chrome was discovered first by Pro. J. L. Smith in 1848
at Broussa, city situated on the south east of Constatinople at
57 miles distance. It occurs here, as elswhere, exclusively in the
serpentine in the shape of pockets and veins of irregular extent
and size. The mine of this district was practically a monoply in
the hands of Messrs. Patterson. Another large deposit, also
discovered by the same man, exists at Harmanjik, about 15 miles
south of Broussa, under same conditions of occurrences as above.

The Chrome ore of Asia Minor having a very low silica
content and being very soft have been in great demand, and for
many years have constituted the principal source of supply of both
American and European consumers.

Mr. Show contributes the following analysis of these ores :

172 MINERAL RESOURCES

Per Cent.

Sesquioxide of chrome 55-04 51-70 56-8o

Protoxide of iron 12.63 14-20 12.06

Alumina "-84 i4-io 14.00

Magnesia 16.19 i4-30 i5-00

Silica 2.00 3.50 1.45

Lime i-40 i-7o 0.70

Water 40 -30 0.15

Total 98.86 99.80 100.16

The Vilayet of Aidin is a province in Asia Minor which has
a coast line extending from opposite the island of Mytiline to
beyond Makri, opposite the island of Rhodes, and embraces al-
most the entire basins of the two principal rivers, the Sarabat
(Hermas) and the Meander (Mendereh), besides some smaller
ones. The principal town is Smyrna, the center of trade of the
district, from which two railways run into the interior along the
valleys of the two rivers just mentioned.

The greater part of this country is composed of limestone,
sand, schists, and presents a fine example of orthodox regional
metamorphism. The shell, mud and other beds, originally de-
posited over a sea bottom, extending probably far beyond the
region here described, have been completely metamorphosed, the
limestone of pure white saccharoid marble, now covering large
areas, and the other bed interstratified with it, to schists of vari-
ous kinds — .mica, chlorite and hydromica, often changing gradu-
ally the one into other and sometimes passing insensibly into
gneiss. In several localities the schist contain regular octahedra
of magnetite up to half an inch in diameter.

The general strike of these formations throughout the country
is about east and west, though locally the schists are much folded,
and strike and dip in all directions. The average dip is steep but
not uniform, and is not always apparent. South of Aidin it
appears to be to the north. Further north again, at Odemish, the
dip is south, indicating several parallel foldings of strata, the
number and extent of which observations were not sufficient to
determine.

In several places serpentine belts occur. These appear to be

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 173

interstratified with the marbles and schists, and would thus point
to a result of general metamorphism on original possibly glaucon-
itic deposits; but further investigation is necessary before it can
be definitely asserted that they are not alteration products of
intrusive sheets of basic olivine rocks. Around the bay of Smyrna
extensive areas consist of volcanic lavas and tuffs, chiefly trachyte.
Overlying the metamorphosed formations there are found in
places such as between Suladan and Ala-Shehr, and south of
Cheshme on the coast, undisturbed beds of sandstone, lying flat
or dipping at a very sHght angle, and full of fossil shells, chiefly
gasteropods.

The most important chromite occurrence at present are at
Makri, opposite the island of Rhodes, at Daghardi south and
southwest of Olymph, and at Kemikli.

The chrome ore in the province of Aidin was also found by
Dr. J. L. Smith. It occurs in the serpentine in pockets and in
veins of irregular extent. Messrs. Patterson owns the mines
all in the neighborhood of Makri.

The value of ore depends on its contents of sesquioxide of
chromium. Shipments have been made from Makri containing as
much as 58 per cent. The lowest content marketable is 47 per
cent., and this only if the ore is soft and easily crushed. Such
ores have been preferred to the very hard ore, which latter must
contain at least 50 per cent, to be marketable.

It is a curious fact that Patterson states, that the best ore is
gotten near the surface, and that in depth it invariably becomes
poorer.

Chrome ore mines in the east of Amanur, near sea-port of
Mersina, running 51 to 53 per cent, chromic oxide. The pro^-
duction for the year 191 1 was 2000 tons, all being exported to
Germany and France.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF CHROME.

Years Metric Tons.

1892 13.780

^ 20,250

1894 J ^

174 MINERAL RESOURCES

.21,030

18951

1896 J

1897 20,137

1899 4.538

1900 9.749

1901 40,972

MANGANESE.

Manganese ores occur abundantly in Asia Minor and Armenia.
The most extensive beds are found in transcaucasian provinces.
These last deposits have more or less been exploited and good
deal of development work has been done so far.

Transcaucasian Manganese. — Manganese ores are known to ex-
ist in Caucasian Armenia in a number of localities, viz. : in the
^government of Kutais, near the village of Chiaturi, in the same
government near the Chorokh river, southward from Batum ; and
in the governments of Erivan and Tiflis. In smaller quantities
they are found in various other places also. The first mentioned
deposits are by far the most important. All the manganese ore
now known in the market as "Caucasian" ore comes from Chia-
turi ; no other deposits in the Caucasus having been worked com-
mercially; movements have been made, however, towards the
exploitation of some of those on the Chorokh River.

No other known deposit of managanese ore can approach that
of Chiaturi in capacity for producing large quantities of high-
grade ore at a low cost. The deposit is said to have been dis-
covered in 1848, by the geologist Abich, but the first shipments
were not made until 1879, when 870 tons were produced. Since
that time, the production has steadily increased, until now the
world relies on this deposit for about one half its supply of
manganese ore. The total production of the mines of the Chia-
turi arrived to 1,682,400 tons in 1898.

Chiaturi is a village of the district of Sharopan, which forms
part of the Transcaucasian province of Kutais. The village lies
on the KvriUi river, a tributary of Rion, which enters the Black
Sea, near Poti, and is now connected by a narrow gauge railway
with the station Sharopan, 25 miles to southwest, on the main
line of the Transcaucasian railway.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 175

The vicinity is characterized by high, and in some instances
precipitous, mountain spurs left by the erosion of the valley of
Kvrilli river, and of the ravines through which flow its tributary
rivulets.

The ores of Chiaturi occur in a bedded deposit, lying almost
horizontally, near the tops of the lofty hills in the vicinity of the
village and at an altitude of 1000 feet above the Kvrilli river.
The action of the elements in forming the rugged topography ob-
served in this region has carried away, perhaps, more than one
half the original deposit.

The existing bed has been opened on seven of the mountains
near Chiaturi. Of these three designated locally as Perivissi,
Chocrotti and Itvissi respectively lie to the south of the Kvrilli
river, and four — Organyi, Zedorganyi, Givimavi and Darkvetti,
— lie on the south side of the river.

The bed occurs in a brown sandstone of Miocene age, and
has an average thickness of between 6 and 7 feet. Its dip, which
is slight, and fairly regular, is southerly, slight faulting of the
formation has occurred in some instances ; but few folds are ob-
served and the bed is free from sudden or extreme variations
from the average thickness.

The deposit has a distinctly stratified structure and is com-
posed largely of pyrolusite, but other oxides of manganese also
occur. In many instances, strata of sandstone, or of loose, friable
arenaceous and calcareous material, are intercalated with the
manganese ore, such strata vary in thickness from a small frac-
tion of an inch to as much (in some of the intercalated layers of
sandstone) as 10 inches, or a foot.

The area given by government engineers is about 60 sq. miles
embracing the whole bed known at present time.

It is quite certain, however, that an area of more than 22 square
miles of the present surface is underlain by ore available for
mining; and on this basis it is estimated that, even if the crude
and wasteful methods now pursued should be always continued,
the bed will yield more than 80,000,000 tons of marketable ore.
The deposit is intercalated between two beds of limestone of
Eocene age, and is associated with layers of sand, the ore oc-
curring either as an oolitic stratum or as lumps disseminated in
beds of clay, the minerals being chiefly pyrolusite and manfjanite.

176 MINERAL RESOURCES

A complete analysis of very well sorted and cleaned ore from
Chiaturi, gives the following results :— ore dred at 212'' F.

Manganese peroxide 86.25%

Manganese protoxide 0.47%

Iron peroxide 0.61 %

Oxide of copper o.oi %

Oxide of nickel 0.30%

Alumina ' 1-74%

Lime ' 1-73%

Magnesia 0.20%

Baryta i-54%

Potash & Soda 0.22%

Silica 3-85%

Carbonic Acid 0.63%

Sulphur : 0.23%

Phosphoric Acid (0.141 P) 0.323

99-953
The occurrence of baryta with manganese shows the destruc-
tion of neighboring crystalline rocks, rich in manganese, through
weathering. In course of recent geological periods and immense
quantity of manganese have been carried by rivers to the sea.
Manganese so brought to the sea has been precipitated, probably,
by slow oxidation due to oxygen dissolved in the water, through
an absorption by descending volcanic ash, bone fragments may
also have been operative.

This deposit of manganese formed by sedimentation may be
regarded as a shallow water deposit containing shark's teeth.
From the tetonics in the place it is evident that the deposition
of manganese has taken place in shallow water, probably in
large lagoons and in a shallow sea fairly near the coast.

At Kutais gneiss or granite occurs at some distance from the
manganese deposit. The solutions must be derived this crystalline
rocks.

It must be pointed out that the manganese beds as well as
lodes are not particularly associated with basic rocks, the major-
ity occurring in genetic relation with acid rocks such as gneiss,
granite, quartz porphyry, etc. The solutions from acid rocks

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 177

probably therefore originally carried as a rule more manganese
than similar solutions from basic rocks.

Manganese elsewhere in Caucasus is found also in veins, often
in pockets or masses and frequently are mixed with the gangue.
Pyrolusite of this structure is specially found in Pontic region,
in Archava, Riseh, and Surmeneh districts. The amount is too
small to make mining feasible.

The district of Phlinika in Asia Minor occupy an important
position in the production of manganese in form of pyrolusite,
containing 52 per cent, manganese in the ore.

A small amount of manganese is also mined at the Zengan
with average assays showing 83 per cent, managanese dioxide.

Manganese mines are also worked in the province of Trebi-
zond, on Black Sea coast.

Occurrences of the manganese ores are, moreover, known in
the vicinity of the seaport of Mondania, as well as near Sesh-
keni, Balia, and Ushak, all in Anatolia.

Internationally most important beds of manganese are found
at Eregli on Black Sea coast.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF MANGANESE.
Years Metric Tons.

1888 669

1889 8000

1892 _. . .2900

1893 2225

1894 8400

X896) 23^°°

1897 49000

1898 55300

1899 49468

1900 38100

1903 39500

191 1 18000

178

MINERAL RESOURCES

MERCURY.

Two deposits of Cinnabar are known at present in Anatolia;
one in the province of Konieh and the other in the district of
Smyrna.

About 400 miles by rail southeast of Constantinople, in the
department of Konieh, near the old city of Iconium, now known
as Konieh. The Konieh Mercury Syndicate, Ltd., was opened
in 1905 to operate a cinnabar deposit of considerable promise.

The cinnabar occurs in veinlets, nodules and small particles in
a crystalline limestone close to the talcose-schist contact at no
great distance from the old eruptives. The occurrence of the
minerals is not uniform throughout the limestone ; it appears to
be present only where, or near where, the limestone is much
silicified, or entirely replaced by quartz suggesting that the

GEOLOGICAL POSITION OF KONIA MERCURY MINE.

1 . Limestones.

2. Slates.

3. Ores.

quartz and mercury had a common origin or were deposited at
about the same time.

While there are a few nodules and rich veinlets of several
inches in width, the greater part of the workable deposits consist
of the siliceous limestones seamed and veined with the little
stringers of the sulphide, the whole assaying from i to 2.5 per
cent, mercury. One considerable body was found associated with
stibnite; this carried about 8 per cent, of mercury.

Quartz croppings and float occur at numerous points that where
work is now being prosecuted. All of these quartz contain visible

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 179

cinnabar, but little of a grade to be treated profitably. Scattered
over a considerable area, however, it suggested that where the
quartz penetrates the limestone other workable deposits would
be found. Subsequent developments have proved this to be the
case.

This property is probably one of the earliest mercury mines
to have been worked, though the date of its early operations is
not exactly known. In this connection its rediscovery and open-
ing are interesting.

About 1901, four years before the operation of the mine, a
goatherder who kept his flocks on the almost baren hills near
Konieh corralled them at night in a limestone cave within a
short distance of the buried cities of the Holy Land. Night
after night they were taken there for protection. One night a
refractory goat refused to enter the portal, and the goatherder
picking up a stone to discipline the offending animal, noticed that
it was heavy and dark red in color, different from other stones
around there. Laying it aside, he one day broke it open be-
tween two large stones and saw that it was a beautiful rose color
on the inside. With curiosity aroused he went to an arroya below
the cave to look for similar stones; he found one more but that
was all.

After this next clip was made, he went on his annual trip to
Konieh to dispose of it, taking these two peculiar stones with
him. The wool and stones fell into the hands of a local mer-
chant acting for the Whittall Bros., exporters of Constantinople,
and he too, thinking the stones were curious, sent them on to
the seaport, to his principals when making a shipment of wool.

One of the Messrs. Whittal was a graduate of Royal School
of Mines, and as soon the stones fell into his hands he recognized
them as high-grade cinnabar, knowing that mercury had been
found at several points in Asia Minor, Hugh Whittall, the en-
gineer, decided that when convenient, he would visit that local-
ity. In the course of time he made the trip, with the assistance
of local agent in Konieh, the goatherder was fotmd, also the
cave where the goats were kept and the ravine below it, but
nothing that in any way resembled cinnabar.

The cave had the appearance of any limestone cave with sides
worn smooth and the bottom covered with the dirt of centuries.

i8o MINERAL RESOURCES

The search for cinnabar was about given up when Mr. Whittall
began to disfigure one of the walls with his sample pick. An
incrustation was broken ofif and a tiny veinlet of something pink
was seen ; picking through the incrustation in various places, the
same conditions were found to exist in several places. In short,
the whole bed of limestone appeared to be impregnated with
small seams and veinlets of cinnabar, and what had appeared to
be an ordinary limestone cave resolved itself into something look-
ing like an old mine. The property was denounced for mining
purposes and instructions given for cleaning the dirt.

When the work was started, in 1905, the opening was about
15 ft. wide and it extended 50 ft. into the hill, with the roof
about ID feet above the floor. When completely cleaned out it
was found to extend a little more than 100 ft. dipping with the
limestone beds at an angle of about 10 degress from the hori-
zontal, everywhere that the silicfied limestone appeared thereto
was cinnabar found. When the cleaning had been done it was
decided to put dowti a winze in the floor of the deposit to see
what thickness the impregnated beds might have. The winze
was started at 6 ft. it broke into several chambers almost under
the first, parallel with it and of about the same dimensions ex-
cept that it was nearly 250 ft. long.

It was a surprise to find that the first cave was a mine, a
greater surprise was in store in the second cave. Entering
through the opening in the bottom of the winze a wierd sight
met the eyes of the miners. Scattered over the floor of the
chamber, in all conceivable positions, were seen the remains of
more than 50 human skeltons. Many of the bones were im-
bedded in the secondary deposits of limestone on the floor. There
were great quantities of stone, hammers, several pottery lamps,
a fair amount of charcoal, several rubbing stones and some flint
arrow heads.

Mining had apparently been done by firing the barren rock,
by breaking the softer portions with hammers and by gouging
where there rich seams of cinnabar. Deep groovers followed all
high-grade streaks, but the tool for this work were gone.

Working out to the surface, following the floor of the second
chamber, 40 to 50 ft. of caved ground was pentrated, suggesting

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA i8i

that the miners had been entombed by a fall of rock around the
portal of the opening.

Sometime before this discovery Sir W. Ramsey, the well
known English Archiologist, had unearthed a tablet in a neigh-
boring buried city. This tablet was dedicated to the Phrygian
goddess of the mines, Zizima. The Phrygians inhabited this
part of Asia Minor 1500 years B. C. and it is quite possible that
the deposit was worked as long as 3000 years ago.

There is no positive evidence connecting the tablet with the
mercury deposit, but on the other hand, nothing else has been
found resembling a mine. The thick deposit of lime, on the
floor and walls of the openings in such an arid country as this
is positive proof that the bones were lying there a very long time,
and the probability is that the deposit was a flourishing paint
mine many centuries before the birth of Christ.

Up to the middle of the year 1905 about 15,000 tons of one
per cent, mercury had been opened up.

KASABOURNOU MINE : Karabournou mines are situated about
30 km. from the town of Smyrna. The deposit lies in the vicin-
ity of basaltic flows, and consists of metamorphic siliceous schist
impregnated with cinnabar. Mining is done entirely in open cuts
on ores containing as little as 0.25 per cent, mercury. When
sorted the cinnabar appears to concentrate in the fine, and the ore
is accordingly screened. The concentrate assays from 0.75 to 2
per cent, mercury.

The plant at the mine comprises two double Spirek towers,
furnaces for broken ore, and a Cermak-Spirek furnace for fine.

This installation has a capacity of 30 tons per day. This
mine produces about 3000 flasks annually. The smelting plant at
this mine includes one Spirek tower of 15 tons daily capacity
and one Cermak-Spirek furnace of 8 tons capacity per day.

Mine is found at an altitude of 1800 meters. Operation is
somewhat hindered by the severe winters at this elevation.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF MERCURY.
Years Metric Tons Value

1908 98.5 1417s

1909 142.0 22000
191 1 450 flasks

i82 MINERAL RESOURCES

ANTIMONY.

Antimony is a well known mineral in Anatolia. It is found
in irregular veins (as it is the case for all beds of primary
grounds) and inter-stratified in the schists, specially in veinlets
of different sizes. The age of the deposits generally not known.
The formation is always irregular. The stibnite is onlp accom-
panied with quartz and pyrite. But it must geographically be
attached to the beds of cinnabar.

The stibnite occurs in the valleys of Broussa, Smyrna and
Sivas.

The two important centers of production in the province of
Smyrna are Eudemish andDjinli-Kaya, in both of which high-
grade ore is found, often carrying 65 per cent, antimony.

A double lode, the outcrop of which may be followed for 2
km. is worked in Djinli-Kaya mine 20 km. southwest of Eudem-
ish and 100 km. east southeast of Smyrna, on the northwest slopes
of the Baliamaboli-dagh. The width of the deposit varies from
a few centimeters to some meters. In 1898, 500 tons of ore
valued at about 6000 pounds were won.

In the same Vilayet the mines near Rosdan and Aidin city and
finally the Gerasmos and Kordelio mines also occur.

All these are stibnite veins containing m'ore or less pyrite and
are imbedded in the metamorphic argillaceous schists, mica schists
or gneiss.

Antimony in Broussa is represented by lodes o.i to 2.0 meters
wide, worked in a mine known as the Gometschiftlik-Antimoii
maden, belonging to the Sultan, situated 24 km. east of GediSj.
on the south western slope of the Kizil-dagh. The yearly pro-
duction is about 500 tons of antimony. Here veinfilling in the
amphibolic gneiss pass in cipolin. The veins are very irregular
changing continually in thickness and length. They are often
not longer than tenth of a meter, and are not wider than 2 meters
as maximum. This mine is exploited in open cut.

Half a Km. south of Demir-Kapu there are other antimony-
mines. At Irvindi and Suluk-Koi. Here veinlets of quartz with
stibnite is intercalated in the argillaceous schists 2 meters long^
and some centimeters wide.

In the Vilayet of Sivas antimony ore has been opened up at

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 183

Kara-hissar. Here the antimony ore occurred in pure igneous
rocks free of quartz.

In all these occurrences the antimony forms irregular veins,
as it is the case in all primary deposits and tend to inter-tratify
in the schists. The minerals are put usually accompanied with
the quartz and pyrite. The association of mercury with anti-
mony is a particularly interesting case in Tertiary formations,
where antimony looks entirely different in these conditions than
in the ancient chains, being associated with metallic sulphur,
among which the cinnabar has different sizes of vein fillings.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF ANTIMONY.

Years Metric Tons.

1892

1893 ) '°2S

1893 \

1894) '545

1895 1332

1896 100

1897 400

1899 1173

1900 267

1901 224

1902 481

1903 298

1905 188

1906 1035

LEAD.

The chief lead mines occur in the provinces of Trebizond,
Diarbekr, Hudavendighar, Adana and Erzerum. The lead is
found mostly associated with silver and sometimes with zinc.

Lead mines near Van, in several adjoining districts, are dis-
covered. Near Gulek lead mines were formerly worked and
smelted. The deposits occur as lenticular masses in Cretaceous
limestones, with flint passing into mica-slate. The ores include
galenite, sphalerite and arsenopyrite.

The only lead mines in operation in Anatolia are those at Li-

i84 MINERAL RESOURCES

jessi, near Karahissar and at Gamlibel, near Enderes, both of
which are operated by Asia Minor Company.

In Sivas, the lead ores occur associated with antimony. Two
of the mines were worked by a British company.

The most important beds of lead associated with silver occur
in Balia, Boulgar-Dagh, and Keban.

Balia-Maden. — The lead-silver is here deposited in the Tertiary
augite-andesite rock in contact with metamorphosed limestones.
Metallic sulphur and silica are developed in the contact of igne-
ous rocks with limestone, in a zone from 2 to 5 meters large.
A very small proportion of silicate replaced bp calcareous rock
shows the order of consolidation; epidolite, garnet, with pyrite
and anorthosite with galena. Here sometimes a pocket of very
hard and compact galena is found embedded in the andesite, 26
meters long, from 3 to 5 meters wide, and 6 meters deep. The
ores carry galena, blende and pyrite, containing on an average
from 16 to 20 per cent, lead and 8 per cent. zinc.

Boulgar-Maden. — The mine is found in a valley on the main
route opened from Chifte Han. The metalliferous formation
extends about 100 km. up to calcareous rock in contact with
Eocene schists. The schists are traversed by serpentine with
which the minerals have relation in origin. Beyond the contact
of calcareous rocks with schists there is a contact zone of cal-
careous rocks with microgranulite. This is persued in all exten-
sions in the metallic formations of Bulgar-Maden. Stone massea
of ore are filled in the pockets of this microganulite. This bed
is subjected to alterations below the level of the vaUey; which is
due to subterranean circulating waters, in contact with metallic
sulphurs. Ore is rich in lead, the medium tenor being 20 per cent.

Keban-Maden. — This is a complex deposit of argentiferous-
galena, blende and pyrite with antimony. Ore is formed in
contact zone of limestones with porphyry, which is found more
plentifully disseminated near the junction of two species of rocks;
although some rich portions of nearly pure argentiferous sul-
phuret of lead here and there have the appearance of occurring
in veins. One hundred pounds of excavated ore contains i to
1.5 ounces of silver.

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 185

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF LEAD.

Years Metric Ton Years Metric Ton

1894 1,078 1907 10,398

1895 1908 11,772

1896 1.764 1909 12,128

1897 1,785 1910 12,700

1900 2,800 191 1 13,000

1905 10,000 1912 12,500

ZINC.

From the amount of zinc production listed below, seems very
probable that the exploitation of its resources has been lately-
undertaken and some development work has been done. The data
concerning their geological features are lacking except the zinc
deposits of Balia. Zinc is also extracted from silver and lead
mines as it is already discussed under their respective headings.

A deposit of Calamine was worked at Karasu, close to the Za-
karia river, in the province of Ismid. The mines were owned by
a French company.

Other known deposits of zinc ore occur in the province of
Adana which have not yet been developed.

A small amount of work has been done on a zinc mine at
Bazar, in the district of Bigha.

Zinc has also been discovered at Kirasliyaila, in the vicinity
of the ancient town of Pergamos.

Near Smyrna, zinc occurs with the lead, while at Karalar the
ore is silver bearing.

Zinc associated with silver lead of Balia-Maden, is already
discussed.

PRODUCTION OF ZINC.
Years Metric Tons.

1892 100

1895 112

f' 1309

1897

1898 18000

191 1 40000

i86 MINERAL RESOURCES

TIN.

A Tertiary cassiterite tin ore is described in Kurbaba Mountain
near Tillek (Armenia), and between Sahend and Araxes River
associated with copper. But those ores have more historical and
scientific interest rather than industrial importance.

Some kind of ore is described near Migri, (Caucasian Ar-
menia) on Araxes associated with molybdenum and in Hejenan
where molybdenum associated with pyrites and copper in granu-
lites is found.

The ancient records show that tin, cassiterite ore, was mined
near the present towns of Sinous, and also near Aleppo.

ARSENIC.

At Julfa, in Daridagh (Armenia), gypsum occurs in cracks.
In these cracks of gypsum marl are found veins and nests of
realgar and gold pigment.

Realgar is also found further north in Bechenak near sulphur
mine.

At Bocha in the basin o,f the lower Charoth south of Batum
gold pigment is found which is used by dyers of Artvin.

Valuable gold pigment mines lie at Andanise, between Bash-
kala and Kochanese in Taurus.

The mines, in the province of Aidin, in Anatolia, is large and
rich deposit of Arsenic-pyrite in the vicinity of Eudemish and
elsewhere.

The most important deposit worked is situated in the neighbor-
hood of Yenikoi, where from 600-800 tons per annum are pro-
duced. This ore assays as high as 42 per cent, arsenic and car-
ries considerable gold.

The mines at Elkhur, near Rozdan, produce 500 tons a year.
The ore is found in the same veins that carry the stibnite, but
in pockets free from the presence of this last named mineral.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION.
Years Metric Tons.

1893 200

1894 V

1895 f 3°3

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA 187

COBALT.

A deposit of cobalt ore has been found at Dash-Kessan, in the
government of Elizabethpol, which takes the form of a dyke im-
pregnated by cobalt associated with iron and copper pyrites. This
is important among all mines of cobalt. This cobalt ore is al-
most entirely free from nickel and consists of a thick bedded
lode of magnetite.

The one at Chatakh consists of a large irregular mass of di-
orite impregnated with iron glance.

INDEX

GEOGRAPHICAL.

A.

Abdi Pasha "JJ

Acropolis 80

Adalia 43

Adana . 48, 107, 109, 149, 171

Adapazar 58

Adriatic 81, no

Aegean 35, 41, 47, 56, 58, 90,

95,99
Afganistan 117

Afion-Karahissar 95, 161, 133

Africa 55

Ahar 39

Aghatch-Bashi 97

Aidin 48, 73, 102, no, 129,

143, 171
Aintab 108
Ajaris 53
Aji Rvr. 70
Akbaba 52
Akcha-Ova •j'j
Ak-chai 99, 107
Ak-Dagh 60, 71, 82, 96, 152,

157
Akhaltzik 53, 67, 68, 70, 85,

Akhuri-Rvr. 72
Akhmongan 39
Akhtala 165
Akra 108
Ak-Serai 97
Akstafa 67, 68

Ala-chair "jj^

Ala-Dagh 54, 95, 157

Ala-goz 50, 55, 72, 87

Aladja-Aghzy 103, 104

Alaja Mt. 87

Ala-Shehr 96

Alashkert 38, 40, 44, 46, 50,

54, 17, 78, 95, 96, 152
Albania no
Albian 66
Albistan 60
Aleppo 170, 171
Alexandrett 28, 58, no, 168
Alexandropol 43, 46, 70, 71,

87, 107, 162
AHMt. 67,111
Alikulikent 66
AHzy 96

Allah- Verdi 162, 165
Alma-Dagh 58
Almons 97
Alps 36, 76, 85, 86
Altai Mt. 35
Amanus 56

Amasia 40, jy , 78, 95, 86, 152
Amasra 29, 50, 75, 76, IT, 105,

109
America 74, 75, 88, 128
Angora 40, 64, 76, 78, 95, 96,

120
Antioch 171
Anti-Taurus 26, 34, 30, 41,

I go

MINERAL RESOURCES

42, 47, so, 52, 53, 59, 73,
74, 75, 82, 154, etc.

Apaud 68

Apshiron 1 1 1

Arabia 31, 34, 54. 57. §5

Arabkir 61, 86

Rratch 96

Ararat 34, 37, 38, 44, 45, 50,
54, 55, 61, 69, 70, 71, 72,
84, 86, 87, 122, 124, 144

Arax 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 49,
50, 55, 61, 63, 65, 68, 69,
82, 106, 108, III, 117, 120

Archavatal 161

Archipelago 35, 41, 129

Ardahan 43, 68

Ardanush 53, 60, 66, 82

Ardebel 50

Argachi 86

Argeaus 49, 55, 73, 95, 97,

153. 157
Arghana 28, 67, 68, 86, 153
Arghana-Su 67
Arjivan 53
Arkhava 53
Armutli 43
Arpa Rvr. 61, 70
Arpa-gol 43
Arpa-Ouchourou 1 57
Arpatal 69

Artvin 60, 82, 152, 161, 162
Aryan 27
Ashakl Mt. 37
Ashkala 69, 70
Asheref 50
Asia 34, 35, 36, 57, 76, 85,

117
Asia Minor 27, 29, 34, 45, 48,

64, 82, 89, 90, 99, 107, 121,

131, 137, 148, etc.
Astyria 139
Astamal 162
Asterabad 50
Ataineos 139
Australia 148
Avanos 152
Ayasmand 28
Azerbaijan 43, 64, 65, 69
Azizie 126, 129

B.

Bab. Bournon 79
Bagaditch 95
Baghchejik 74, 128
Baibazar 96
Baiburt 106, 152
Bairamitch 80
Bakr-Kuressi 152, 161
Baku no, 113, 114, 115, 116
Balaban 55
Balakhani 114, 115
Balia-Maden 28, 56, 99, 158,

160
Balkans 35, 37, 103, 108
Baltic 89
Balybagh 120
Barabatan 162
Barghama 98
Bartan 95
Bashbouran-Koi 98
B ashkala 37
Bashet 37
Bashkent 44
Bash-Koi 97
Batum 38, 73, 84, III, 113,

147, 161
Bayazid 69, 86
Bechanak 132

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

191

Begil 108

Behring Sea 35

Beigerler-Koi 160

Beirout-Dagh 28, 107, 170

Beldjeis 96

Belen 170

Bereketli-Maden 96, 151

Bergushet Rvr. 66

Beylik 105

Bezobdal 52

Bibi ii'5

Bielyiklinch 52

Bilejik 58

Binagadi 115, 116, 117

Bingol 44, 45, 71

Bitlis 107

Bithynia 34, 40, 58, 71, JJ,

78

Biyad 96

Black Sea 34, 35, 36, 38, 40,
42, 47, 48, 55, 57, 73, 80,
86, 88, 90, 91, 102, no,

"7. 147
Bogboga 114
Borjom 38, 53, 67
Bolat 95, 98
Boli 76
Bolnis 95, 98
ffolshya ?Keity 1 08
Borchka 108
Bosphorus Ji, 74, 75, 88, 90,

96
Boulouk-gol 121
Boz-bouroun 79
Boz-Dagh 138
Broussa 48, 57, 73, loi, 160,

171
Bulanik 46
Bulgar-Dagh 97, 157

Bulgar-Maden 28, 153, 156,
170

C.

Caff a 132

California 127

Camdilli 105

Cape-Caledonia no

Capoo-Sou 105

Cappadocea 58

Caria 56, 57, 59, 79, 107

Carpathians 35

Caspian Sea 34, 35, 37, 42,

52, 53. 54, 81, 87, 90, 114,
117, 118, 119

Caucasus 32, 35, 36, 52, 53,
54, 57, 63, 64, 66, (fj, 83,
84, 87, 90, 108, no, III,
117, 162, 173

Chabakchar 36

Chram- Valley 60

Chambuk 165

Chardaklu 52

Charel 107

Chatma 113

Chaoush-Aghzy 104

Chemaera no

Cheraker 107

Cherkos-Deli 109

Chifte-Khan 154

China 48

Chinese 35

Chili 126, 127, 128

Chios 56

Chorokh 36, 38, 39, 45, 52,

53, 55, 60, 66, 69, 72, 108,

147, 152
Cilicia JT, 78, 79, 86, 88, 90,
170

192

MINERAL RESOURCES

Cilician-Gates 41, 48
Cilician-Taurus 41, 42, 48, 57,

58
Colorado 156
Constantinople 81, 82, 102,

146, 149, 171
Corinth 132
Cosbounar 129
Cozlou 103, 104, 105
Crete 56
Crimea 35, Tj, 80, 83, 90, 91,

132
Cyprus

D.

Daata 132

Dachichek 50, 60

Daghardi 28

Daghistan 84

Dahan-Aslan 81

Dalaman 96

Dalmatian 35, 41

Dammry Mt. 49

Danga 61

Daralagoz 39, 40, 49, 60, 61,

82, 85, 86, 132, 135
Darasham 68
Dardanelles 74, 78, 79, 80, 82,

90, 99, 132, 139
Dary-Dagh 69
Dashkessan 135
Davalu 61
Davas 59
Dead Sea 124, 129
Debeda dj, 71
Degma 61
Deki I0120
Delgam 72
Demir-Dagh 168

Demir-Tash loi, 168

Denek-Maden 152

Dere Koi 98, 150

Dergal 107

Dersim 61 64, 82, 106, 108,

168
Derstek 106
Devehboyoun 55
Devil Mt. 69
Diadin Mt. 53, 71, 132
Diarbekr 28, 54, 108, 134, 149,

161, 165, 166
Digga 117

Digora 53
Dinaric Arc 56, 57
Djide 104
Dneiper 90
Dobrousha 83
Dochus-punar 43, 53
Domooz 104
Donetz 90
Dovantzi loi
Duchu 68
Dujuk 168
Dumbeltek 159
Durezzo no
Dybakli 168
Dzansugli 164
Dzanzul 162

E.

Eanedeh 80
isdrimid 99
Egin 42, 50
Egrilos 132
Egypt 109
Eibet 115
Ekhiti-Oughlou 74
Elburz 32, 49, 50, 54, 63

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

193

Eldin III

Etf ahla 1 1 1

Elizabethpol 64, 67, 130, 164

Eljik-Dagh 105

Elvach 162, 164, 165

Elma-Dagh 95

Emir-Dagh- 122

Eregli 73

Ergha 162

Erivan 46, 70, 72

Erooh 107

Erzerum 36, 40, 44, 45, 46,

48, 54, 55, 70. 71, 106, 107,

no, 137, 149, 152

Erzingan 39, 45, 46, 50, 54,

70, 72, 86, 120
Eschen-Keoi 97
Eshak-Meidan 72
Eskil 121
Eski-Shehr 1 31-132
Euprates 41, 42, 45, 48, 97,

108, III, 152, 153
Europe 27, 36, 56, 57, 58, 74,

75, 76, 77, 84, 85, 88, 89,

99, 103, 117, 120

Evdjiler 98
Evenkoi 80
Eyerli 44, 79
Ezderun 98

Feke 75
Filios 102
Five Pines 82
Frankfort 159

Frat 50, 52, 69, 70, 84, 86,
108

G.

Gaishtasar 50

Galatia 78, 87

Galingaya 50

Galipoli 81, 82

Galivera 161

Galizuski 164

Gandamir 44

Gangra 120

Ganos 109

Gavart 162

Gedergan- 69

Gelies 134

Geordiz 73

Gerdiz 97

Gerjik 96

Germany 128

Germavic 64

Geuk-Sou 96

Geuy loi

Ghemlik loi

Gibbula 81

Gobi 35

Gokcha 37, 38, 39, 67, 72, 84,

Gok-Sou 41, 48

Goleh 42

Gori 54, III

Gotadza 134

Goynik 134

Greece 70, 90, no, 140

Greenwitch 106

Gtosny in

Gug Oghlou 71

Gulek 157

Gulek-Boghaz 41, 48

Gul-Hissar 102

Guile 98

Gum-gum-liz 54

Gumugh-Dagh 129

194

MINERAL RESOURCES

Gumur 132
Gune 95
Gurun 97
Gushaish 65
Gutevaria 53
Gyneshik 61

H.

Hadjin 75, 76

Hadjiman-Yaila 97

Hairie 160

Halys 55, 58, 13s, 137

Hammam 1 1 1

Han-hai 35

Hara 109^

Haran 49

Harmanjik 171

Hassan-Chaoushlar 129

Hassan-Kala 71

Hazara 108

Hazo 120

Hedgenan 162

Hekiari 107

Herbol 108, iii

Heraclea 29, 55, 75, jj, 79,

80, 95, 102, 103, 104, 105,

106, 109
Hermos 141, 143
Himalaya 35, 57, 117
Hindu-Kush 32,34,35,41,42
Hipsala 85, 95, 97
Hit III
Hortuk 108
Hudavendighiar 126, 149, 157,

158, 171
Huelva 148

Id 60, 71

leni-Chair 58

Igdir 72

Ilidja 71, 154

Ilison 104, 105

Ilkas-Dagh 76

Imeritian 38, 52, 53, 108

Imerkhim 152

Imerkhevi 53

India 31, 34, 57, 63, 83, 119,

128
Ineboli 40, 152, 161
Ionian 34, 41
Iron 34, 36, 39, 57, 40, 46
Isaurian 41, 48
Isbarta 41, 48
Ishikli 50
Iskenderun 171
Isnik 160
Isnik Chair 160
Ispie 161
Italy 128
Itushem 69

J-

Jadi 54, 108

Jaxartes 35

Jejen 52

Jelu Mt. 37, 39, 60, 63, 72

Jerjer 84

Jesireh 54, 108

Jibbah 1 1 1

Jihun 41, 49, 107, 109

Jivah-Geul 95

Jivanik 162

Jordan 55

K.

Kabagtepe 64
Kargapunar 53

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

195

Kagizman 43, 120

Kaiserieh 55, 73, 120, 152

Kalakent 147

Kalburji 95

Kalopotamos 168

Kaulsakendi 64

Kanlija 74

Karabagh 32, 37, 40, 49, 50,
52, 54, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66,
67, 82, 83, 84, 85, 147, 162

Karabel-Dagh 42

Karabournu 56-95

Kara-Dagh 41, 49, 55, 73, 95

Karaboghaz 118, 119

Kara-Dere 79

Karahissar 53, 60, 68

Karaja Mt. 54, 55, 107

Karaja-Kaya 53

Karakala 72

Karakana 168

Karakaya 50

Karakilissa 1 1 1

Karakoi 72

Karapunar 74, 95

Kara-Sou 50

Karchkhal Mt. 53, 60, 68

Kardarich 69

Karkar 37

Karmirvauk 68

Kars 43, 54

Kar-chai 52

Kasanyaila 63, 83

Kashet 55

Kashkal-Dagh 106

Kashkale 107

Kasos 50

Kastamuni 48, 58, 95, 96

Katirlan 152

Keban-Maden 68, 152, 153

Kebsid 95

Kedabek 162

Kegeba 53

Kegejin 50

Kehal Jo

Kelkil 28, 39, 52, 71

Kemil 82

Kemikji-Ojaghi 131

Keramos 102

Kerason 135, 137, 148, 161

Kerasliyaila 160

Kertch 81

Keshan 79

Keshat 152

Keshish-Dagh 38, 39, 52, 71

Kesik-Dere

Khama 37

Khamur 45

Khamurli 97

Khan Mt. 40

Khanli 60

Kharpoot 34, 68, 108, 147,

152, 165, 166
Kharshut Rvr. 65
Khatchboolach 130
Khenek 160, 107
Khinis 45, 46, 54, 61, 70, 71
Khoi 69, 87
Khordalan 116, 117, 152
Khortakal 152
Khozan-Dagh 171
Khorzoon 97
Khutel-Dagh 147
Khvartzkhane 78, 162
Kiaki Mt. 6 5
Kifri III
Kilimli 104, 105
Kilvenek 147
Kilissejik 108

196

MINERAL RESOURCES

Killindria 74

Killis 86

Kiosk 102

Kiosse Aghzy 104 105

Kir 113

Kiretchlik 104

Kirkut 108

Kirmizi-Chai 97

Kisbeli . 85, 97

Kishala 170

Kisheli 86, 95, 97

Kissatib 71

Kizil-Boghaz 50

Kizil-lr0iak 41, 42, 47, 48,

120, 121, 152, 161
Kizil Mt. 61, 82
Krasnododsk 35
Kukurtlu 107
Kulpi 50, 120
Kuluk 129
Kumach 108
Kur 37.38,42,52,53.54.67,

85, III, 118
Kurmasti 159
Kuru-Dagh 56
Kush Mt. 37
Kutahia 28
Kutais III, 164
Kuzeh 54
Kvirila 65, 67

Lake Aral 89, 90

Lake Baluk 38

Lake Beisliekr 75

Lake Chaldir 52, 70, 71, 87,

122
Lake Gokcha 5:? 52, 54, 68.

70, 87, 122

Lake Goleh 71
Lake Goljik 36, 71
l.ake Gori 71
Lake Isnik 109
Lake Khozapian 52
Lake Medotopa 52
Lake Nazik 70, 71, 122
Lake Toporavan 42, 70, 122
Lake Umri 39, 53, 63, 64, 65,
68, 70, 71, 84, 120, 122,
124, 125, 127, 136

Lake Van 36, 39, 44, 45, 46,
53, 54, 59, 60, 61, 69, 70,

71, 107, 120, 122, 123, 125,
136

Lampascus 99
Laurion 157
Leadville 156
Lefke 55, 58, 120
Lerrmos 99
Levant 79
Lialvar 52
Lidjessi 153
Lijeru 71
Lilo 52
Limestone 44, 45, 58, 70, 71,

72, 7Z, 74. 75, 76, 79. 85.
102, 129, 130, 135, 150,

152, 153. 156, 157. 158. 172
Lokia 129
Lori 71

Loungourlu 120
Lycaonia 40, 55, 56, 57, 73,

90, 96, 121, 136
Lycia 41, 56, 78, 96, 97
Lydia Jz, 78. 79. 140, 141,

142, 143, 144

Lyell Mt. 148

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

197

M.

Macedonia 145

Maden-Khan 152, 161

Maden-Koi 120

Maghara 120

Makry 28, 101

Maku 69, 86 '

Malaria 54

Mamkodi 53

Mamuretulaziz 106

Manasuck 1 1 1

Mangislik 83

Manglis 53

Manisa loi, 143

Manjilik 97, 99, 159

M,aragha 70, 87

Mardin 54, 86

Marellesion 65

Marmora 29, 73, 79, 80, 81,
99, 109, 157, 158
Meander 48, 80, 81

Mediterranean 27, 34, 41, 42,

47, 56, 57, 58, 76, 76, 79,
80, 84, 86, 88, 90, 117

Melasket 45, 54, 70

Melatta 67

Melik-Sherif 71, 81

Melpert 40, 50

Menderli 1 1 1

Merpan Mt. 39, 45, 108

Mersina 48

Mersivan 106, 153

Mervanen 108

Mesepsif loi

Migri 84, 106, 108, 171, 173

Mikhaelov 67

Mikus 59

Milas 102

Mio-Dagh 162

Miriam 40, 50, 108

Mishkhan 170

Mitilini 56

Mitskhert 53

Molita 65

Mongolia 35

Morgan Mt. 148

Mourad-Geul 121

Mourtad-Sou 95

Moushlou-Sou 120

Mta-Skara 38

Mughla - no

Murad 36, 38, 45

Murad-Khan 65

Mush 36, 39, 44, 46, 107

Mushoma 71

Muzur Mt. 39, 45, 50, 52, in

Mysia 73, 74, 78, 157

Mytelene 99

N,

Nariman 71, 107

Nakhichevan 54, 69, in, 120

Nazilli 102

Negropond 132

Nepiskario 53

Nevada 139

Nevshehr 95

Nicie 160

Nigde 73, 95, 154

Niksar 95

Nimrud 87

Nisyros 56

Nordooz 56

North Carolina 131

Nuova 102

Nurdus 108

Nyassa 55

198

MINERAL RESOURCES

O.

Ochital 60

Okchai 162

Olti 52, 60, 70, 71, 120

Olympus 40, 49, 57, 73

Ordabad 49

Ormuz 34

Oshara 53

Otluk 52

Ounineh 139

Ouzouyaila 39, 59

Oxus 35

Pactolus 141, 142
Palandoken 40, 44, 45, 50, 55
Pallas 120

Palu 28, 36, 54, 107, 108, 109
Pambak 52, 60, 67, 68, 70,

84, 170
Pamir 35
Pamphylia 41, 49
Panderma 26, loi, 135
Papazly 80

Paphlagonia 57, 58, 76, 78, 96
Paris 132
Pasin 40, 44, 45, 46, SO, 70,

71
Pergamos 139
Perghama 120, 160
Peril Mt. 37, 38
Peru 108
Persia 34, 36, 39, 42, 45, 46,

61, 70, 71, 83, 85, 86, 106,

107, no, 117, 120
Phlinika 177
Phrygia 55, 139, 140, 141, 142,

143
Pirmakapan 70

Pisidia 41, 78, 96

Pison 45

Padolia 89

Poili 113

Polatli 59, 78, 87, 91, 99, 122

Poltava 90

Pontus 34, 28, 39, 40, 41, 42,

49. 42, S3> 55. 57. 58, 60,
66, 68, 71, 77, 79, 82, 83,
84, 97, 121, 137, 138, 144,
146, 161

Poskov Rvr. 53

Prussia 89

Puta 116

R

Rahmin 108

Red Sea 55

Rhodes 56, 57, 58

Rion 67

Rio Tinto 148

Romany 114

Roumania 64

Roumeli-Hissar 82

Rowanduz 55, 60

Russia 31, 52, 77, 91, 106,

117, 145, 162
S
Saboontchy 1 14
Saghlik 135
Sahend 54, 162
Saigroma 50
Saka 129
Sakaria 47, 55, 57, 58, 121,

122
Salaka 37
Salavan 50, 54
Salgalotto 53
Salvasti 49

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

199

Sambana 145

Samsat 54

Satnothrace 56

Samsar 87

Samjel-Robat 68

Samos 56, 57

Samsata 1 1 1

Samson 40

Samsislo 53

Santorin 56, 95

Sarababa 161

Sarai 117

Sardes 140

Sardingo 157

Sasun 147

Satah 53

Scala 102

Scutaria 58

Sebastopol 132

Sefedler 105

Segisik 108

Segnak 53

Selefke "jy

Seliyaila 95

Sepetji 131

Sepki 131

Seresu 131

Serian Tepe 81

Serjiller 139

Sert 54

Severek 166

Shabin Karahissar 133

Shah Mt. 37, III

Shahi 69

Shaitan 72

Shamshortal 64

Sharopan i i i

Shatin 34, 40, 50, 61, 82, 84

Shengyah 106

Shermak Mt. 54

Shikaus 164

Shivan 59, 147

Shistapa 42

Sharian Mt. 53

Siberia 30, 35, 48

Sihun 41, 109

Siller 108

Sinope 40, 55, 58, 73, 81, 161

Sipan 45, 54, 87

Sipikor 52, 86

Sipilus Mt. 143

Sis 107

Sivalik 70

Sivas 28, 48, 106, 121, 133,

150. 152
Sivishlu 107
Sizi-Madeni 168
Smyrna 48, 56, 57, 98, 102,

129, 143, 157
Soganly 87
Sokia 87
Soma 102
Soma loi, 159
Somketian 38, 60, 71, 82, 84,

85
Soneisat 1 1 1
Sooksou 104
Soulou-Ova 96
Spalmatori 56
Spain 148
Staasfurt 127
Sultan-Chair 126
Sultan-Dagh 122
Sunik 164
Surmeneh ill
Syrersyrchelly 50
Syria 34, 41, 48, 49, 86, 89,

170

200

MINERAL RESOURCES

Tabriz 70, 87

Tadvan 60

Taginomi 53

Talish 39

Talori 1 70

Tanali 69

Tanganyka. 55

Tarim 35

Tarsus 154

Tartiz Mt. 53

Tasmania 148

Tatakh 45

Taurus 28, 29, 34, 36, 39, 40,
41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57. 59. 60, 67, 68,
70, 72, 74, 82, 86, 87, 107,
108, 120, 121, 138, 147

Tavshan-Dagh 106

Tazegul 107

Tchai 1 01

Tchai-Dere loi, 107

Tchamak-Dagh loi

Tchandarlik 98

Tchatal-Aghzy 104, 105

Tchatal-Oghlou 74, 78

Tchayan 120

Tchough 107

Tchemishguezek 106

Teati-Shan 35, 36

Tekir-Dagh .56

Tekman 50

Telkiari 1 1 1

Tendurek 87, 132

Tepesi-Delik 120

Terek 118

Terajan 40

Terter 39, 68

Thasos 157

Thermodon 135

Thrace 98, 158

Tiiralitic 38, 52, 53, 87, 108

Tibet 35, 57

Tiflis 38, 53, III, 113, 162,

163
Tigris 54, 85, 108, 166, 170
Tilek 168
Tmolus Mt. 141, 143
Tokat •jj, 78, 95, 106, 167
Tombof 90
Tortum 69, 108
Transylvania 64
Trapassar Mt. 65, 66
Trebizond 28, 40, 48, 71, 11 1,

135. 137. 146, 152, 149.

161
Tripoli 13s

Troad 79, 80, 96, 99, 139, 140
Trojan 80, 107
Troy 58
Tsamly 105
Touzla 80
Touz-Geullu 95, 122
Touz-Kharmatli 1 1 1
Touz-Koi 120
Touz-Tchollu 121

U

Ural 118
Uraval 71, 137
Urfa 54
Urmi 61, 64, 80
Ust-Urt 90
Utah 131
Utch-Kapou 96

V

Van 107, 108, no. III, 120
Vanik 59

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

20 1

Vartik 107
Vavuk Mt. 53
Varzahan 52
Vizirkhan 55
Volga 118
Voroneje 90

X

Xeros 81

Yaylaga 52
Yaija 69
Yailaji 76
Yailajik 107
Yeni-Khan 76
Yerebakan 74
Yeshil-Irmak 48
Ylang-Dagh 154
Yosgat 73, 78, 96

Yousouf-Oghlou 97

Z

Zab 37, 63, 108

Zabrat 114

Zafranik 106

Zagros 34, 38, 39, 54, 85, 86

Zakhlu III

Zamantia-Sou. 41

Zangesur 162, 164

Zangimar 69

Zangra 68

Zangul 167

Zeitun 28, 107, 170

Zerdeji 50

Zermek Mt. 45

Zinlerly 40, 50

Zirula 60, 65, 66

Zokh 70

Zoongooldak 29, 104

II

MINERAL AND GEOLOGICAL.

Abydos 139
Acervularia 61
Acmoea "]"]
Acteonella 66
Actinolite 166
Aculeata 76
Aduncus 80
Agate 137
Algae 63, 83
Alectryonia 69, 80
Alveolina 78
Alveolite 75
Alum 61, 133, 134

Alumina 123, 124, 133
Aluminum Oxide 129
Alunite 133, 134, 135
Ambigua 63
Ammonia 123
Ammonites 65, 66, 67, TJ
Ammonium Chloride 124
Amphibole 152
Amygdaloidal 66, 67
Ananchytes J"]
Anadonta 71
Anadora 80
Ancep 64

Andesite 67, 80, 85, 92, 93,
94, 139, 152, 157, 161, 165

202

MINERAL RESOURCES '

Anglesite 153

Annelids 88

Anomalis 69

Anorthite 157

Anorthosite 158

Antelops 70

Antepora 74

Anthra 78

Anthracite 107, 108, 109

Antimony 153, 160, 162, 182,

183
Antiquata 75, 76
Aptian 66
Aquila 66
Aquilloni 66
Archaic 59
Archaici 61
Arduenensis 'j'j
Argentiferous Copper 161
Argentiferous galena 149,

151, 153. 157. 160
Argillaceous Calcite 135
Argillaceous earth 67, 126,

129
Armeniacus 71
Arsenic 147, 151, 153, 157,

160
Asiatico 73
Asiaticum 75
Asphalt no, III
Astrya 70
Attica 70
Augite 85, 92, 93, 94, 139,

157, 158, 161
Auriferous lead 157

B

Baeumleri 103
Bajocian 64, 83

Barite 159, 160, 164

Barrandu 74

Barremian 65

Basalis 74

Basalt 8s, 86, 92, 95, 96, 97,

136
Bearitzensis 78
Beasolleti 81
Beaumonti 74
Bendenti 66
Bifrons 68
Bituminous 61, 63, loi, 105,

107
Blende 153, 158, 159, 160,

i6S
Boblayei 74
Bocii 74
Bolomensis 75
Bong 90

Borate 126, 127, 136
Borate of lime 128
Borax 71
Boric Acid 127
Bornite 16 5
Brachiopod 61, 63, 64, 82
Brandaris 81
Braunspath 1 59
Breccia 65, 67
Brimestone 132
Bronzite 92
Bryozoa 63, 83, 88

Caesopitosium 61
Caledonic 82
Calamine 152, 160
Calamite 83
Calamorphite 65
Calc-Schist 154

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

203

Calcedony loi
Calceola 61, 82
Calcium Borate 29, 126, 127
Calcium Carbonate 124, 156
Calcium Chloride 125
Calcium Oxide 129
Calcium Phospate 124
Calcium Sulphate 124, 156
Callovian 64, 83, 84
Campaphyllum 75
Cancellata TJ
Caprotina 84, 103
Caradon 103, 105
Carbon dioxide 129
Carboniferous 56, 61, 63, 72,
73. 74, 75. 76, 83, 84, 88,
89, 102, 158
Carcinis 68

Cardium 71, 78, 80, 81

Cassiterite 186

Castel-Gomberto 85

Catenates 76

CatJUus 71

Cazecal 81

Cedaris 68

Cenomanian 66, 84, 85

Cenonian 84, 85

Cephalopodes 75

Cerastoderma 81

Ceratididae 63

Ceriopora 69

Cerithium 68, 78, 80, 81

Cervicomus 75

Cervus 70

Cespitosam 75

Chalak 27

Chalk 45, 67, 77, 86, 88, 136,

152
Chalkos 27
Chaleopyrite 159, 162, 164,

165
Chama 65
Chideru 63
Chlorine 123, 125
Chlorite-Schist 60
Chondrite 67
Chonetes 61, 63, 74, 75
Chrome 28, 171, 172, 173
Chrouts 27
Chrysos 27
Chrysodium 79
Cinnabar 178

Clay 60, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 80,
81, 82, loi, 108, 115, 136
Clay Slate 60; 61, 76, 152
Clupa 69
Clypeaster 69

Coal 29, 67, 75, 78, 79, 85, 90,
99, loi, 102, 103, 104, 105,
106
Cobalt 187
Coenites 75
Colemanite 126
Concentrica 61
Conglomerate 61, 64, 65, 70,
78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86,
loi, 126
Conus 68

Constinopolitanum 74
Convulatum 78
Copper 27, 28, 97, 147, 148,
152, 153, 161, 162, 163,
164, 166, 167, 168
Copper glance 164
Copper molybdenite 162
Copper pyrite 75
Coral 45, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66,

68, 85, 86
Coralline 83
Coral-Rag 77

204

MINERAL RESOURCES

Corbicula 79

Corbis 78

Cornuvacium 78

Corundum 15, 129

Cothirium 78

Cotuloni 65

Covellite 164

Crassissima 80

Cretacea 78

Cretaceous 50, 52, 53, 57, 58,
59, 60, 64, 65, 66, 68, 72,
73, -jj, 84, 85, 88, 95, 97,
102, 108, III, 135, 152,
153. 16s '

Crinoid 63

Crispus 69

Cristata 74

Crossa 81

Crustacea 66, 88

Cuboidis 61

Culm 75, 102

Cupriferous pyrite 159, 160

Curvieri 67

Cyathophyllum 61, 75

Cyclolite T]

Cyrena 79

Cystiphyllum 61, 63

D

Dacite 63
Dactyles 139
Dalmanella 63
Davousti 74
Decemradiata 65
Defrancii 69
Deltoid 81
Dephyoides 65
Depressa 65
Desmaceros 60

Despansa 78

Desparilis 78

Devonica 74

Devonian 60, 61, jz, 73, 74,

75, 82, 83, 88, 89, 131, 152,

156
Diabase 44, 60, 63, 64, 67, 91,

92, 97, 162, 165
Dialage 96, 166
Dianae 81
Diatomaceous 98
Didacna 81
Didacus 81
Diluvii 80
Diorite 50, 59, 93, 94, 97, 147,

165, 168
Discoidus 66
Discus 68
Djumense 66
Dogger 64, 83
Dolerite 66, 67, 95, 96, 97
Dolomite 60, 63, 154, 153, 156
Driessensia 70, 71, 81, 87

Echinocorys 67

Edule 81

Elaphas 71

Elegans 67

Emery 129, 130

Endothyra 63

Eocene. 53, 57, 58, 67, 68, 69,
74, 78, 79. 85, 86, 89, 90,
95, 97, 106, 108, no, 153,

154, 157
Epidolite 158
Epidote 157
Eupholite 127
Eurite 95, 97

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

205

Exogyra 65, 66
Exponense 78

F.

Fahlband 164
Favosites 75
JEeldspar 60, 93, 95, 152
Feldspathic porphyry 152
Felsitic 94
Fenestelk 75
Flint 67, loi
Floriformis 62
Flysch 58,67,85
Foraminifera 67
Fortisia 79
Frazilis 80
Frusticosus 75
Fucoides 67
Fuller's earth 136
Fusilina 63, 83
Fusulinella 63

Gabbro 44, 91, 126

Galena 75, 150, 152, 153, 156,
158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165

Garnet 158, 164

Gastropod 68, 80, 173

Gervillei 74

Gigentes 63, 103

Gigentia 78

Giraffes 70

Glacier 71, 72, 82

Glaucina 68

Glauconite 66

Glaucophane i 54

Gold 27, 138, 140, 141, 142,
143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148,
149, 150, 152, 156, 164, 165

Goldfussi 61

Graben 87

Gracile 70, 80, 81

Granite 49, 59, 60, 65, 73, 87,

90, 94, 96, 130
Granitite 94, 126
Granophyr 162
Granulosa 78
Gneiss 52, 59, 60, 73, 87, 130,

172
Graphite 61
Grawake "]"]
Gryhoides 103
Gunteri 68
Gypsum 70, 78, 79, 86, 87, 126

135, 153

H

Hamoxitos 80

Hanisi 71

Haploceras 64

Hardrensis 63

Harmodites 76

Harpacto 68

Harzburgite 91

Hauterivian 65, 84

Heliolite 61

Helix 98

Helvetian 69, 79, 80, 86

Hematite 97

Hercynian 57

Hipparion 70

Hippurite 78, 84

Homalonotus 74

Hopkinsi 69

Hornblende 85, 92, 93, 131,

147
Bomblende-Schist 59

Horridus 76

Horst S3, 54, 57, 82, 86, 87

Humulis 69

206

MINERAL RESOURCES

Hybridum 78
Hydromica 172
Hyeximica 70
Hypersthene 91
Hypersthenite 96

I

Inflatus 61

Inoceramus 67, ^T, 78

Intermedius 68

Iron 27, 28, 95, 97, 107, 108,

168
Iron Carbonate 124
Iron Ochre 153
Iron Oxide 123, 129, 133,

152, 156
Irridiuni 147

J

jasper loi
Julfa 63, 68, 69, 83
Julfense 64

Jurassic 58, 59, 60, 64, 65,
72, 73, 76, -JT, 88, 89, 162

K

Kaoline 136
Kedabergite 164
Kelloway Rock 'j'j
Kimmeredgian 64, "j'j, 83, 84

L

Labrusca 79
Lactus 81
Laeigatus 68
Lamarkii "j'j, 78
Lamellosa 78, 80
Lamma 67
Lanceolata 69

Laterius 69

Lead 28, 75, 147. I49. i57.

159, 183, 184, 185 -_
Lead Carbonate 156, 161
Lebloena 74
Lenticularis 63
Letiensis 61
Leucite 92
Lherzolite 91
Limonite 28, 170
Lias 64, 83

Lignite 79, 99, 102, 106, 108
Lindermeyari 70
Lima 63, 65
Limburgite 91
Lime 123, 125
Liperite 80, 139 -->
Lithographic Stone 67, 135
Lithophya 81
Lithopodolicum 80
Lithostration 63
Lithothamnian 86 .
Longicoudatis 74
Lonsdaleia 63
Loripes 81
Lucina 78

M

Macrocephallus 64
Mactra-Kalk 79, 80, 81
Manganese 152, 158, 161.

173, 174, 175
Manganese Oxide 123
Magnesia 123, 125
Magnesium 120
Magnesium Carbonate 124,

130
Magnesium Chloride 125, 127
Magnesium Silicate 126, 131
Magnesium Sulphate 124,

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

207

125, 136
Magnetite 129, 164, 170, 172
Major 66
Malm 64
Maltha 1 1 1
Maraghanus 70
Marble 59, 60, 73, 82, 120,

135
Marl 59, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68,

69. 70. 75. 79. 81, loi, 108,

152, 165
Marmini 75

Marn 76, JJ, 78, 79, 80
Martini 63
Mastadon 70
Medistextus 61
Meerschaum 130, 131, 132
Melanopsis 71
Melaphyr 60, 64
Mercury 178, 179, 180, 181
Merista 61
Mesezoic 59, 73, 86
Metallon 27
Mica 59, 61, 74, 93, 139, 152,

172
Mica Schist 60, 61, 71, 76
Mica Slate 124
Michilini 63
Microgranulite 153, 156
Minus 78
Miocene 53, 54, 59, 68, 69,

78, 80, 86, 96, 97, 99, 108,

III, 120, 132
Modosoplicatum 80
Mollusc 89, 91
Molybdenum 186
Moscow 83
Moskaus 63
Moutoniana 65

Murchisoni 63, 75
Murex 81
Muscovite 94
Myriophyto 80, 109

N

Nana 75

Nantilus 65

Naptha 79

Natica 68

Nathein 64

Negram 63

Neocomian 65, 86

Neogene 73

Neruea 66

Nitrate 123, 124, 135

Nummulite dj, 68, 85, 89, 90,

147, 154, 156
Nuropteris 103

O-

Obselatum 80

Oligist 97

Oligocene 50, 54, 59, 67, 68,

78, 79, 85, 86, 108, 154
Oligoclose 95
Olivine 91
Onyx 135
Operculina 78
Ophite 92, 127
Orbicularis 74
Orbialla 69
Orbitolides 68
Orbitoides 78
Ornatus 74
Orthis 74, 75
Osilium 81
Osinium 147
Ostreae 68, 78, 80

208

MINERAL RESOURCES

Osteras 64

Otoidus dy

Ovata 67, Tj, 81

Ova turn 71

Ovoidea 78

Oxfordian 64, 77, 83, 88

Palaeophyus 70

Palaeoreas 70

Paleozoic 52, 59, 63, 64, 73,

83, 85, 86

Pallastra 81

Pamondi 68

Pandermite 126, 127

Parisensis 78

Paryhiri 1 1 1

Pecten 69, 78, 80

Pector 69

Pellico 74, 75

Pentagona 61

Pentacrinites Jj

Pentilici 70

Penza 90

Perforata 78

Peridotite no

Perlongus 63

Permian 54, 63, 76, 83, 88

Persiae 70

Petricola 81

Petroleum 109, no, 115, 116,

117
Phonalite 94
Phosphate 123
Phylloceras 66
Pikermi 70
Piscinalis 70
Plagioclase 164
Plagioptychus 66

Planorbis 70

Planosulcata 63

Platana 85

Platinum 147

Platycrynus 63

Plebeja 61

Pleistocene 70, 81, 87, 137

Pleuro-Dyctium 74

Plicatilis JJ

Plicatum 80

Pliocene 59, 70, 78, 80, 81,

87, 91, 99
Polymorpha 69, 70, 75, 81,

87
Polyps 88, 103
Polystonella 69
' Porosus 69
Porphyry 60, -JT, 88, 94, 96,

97, 152, 153
Porphyrite 93
Portlandian "jj
Potash 123, 125
Potassium 122
Potassium Oxide 133
Potassium Sulphide 124, 125
Prieceite 127
Primegenius 71
Priobona 68
Problamaticum 74
Productus 63, 75, 76, 103
Proecursor 61
Protractum 8e, 81
Purbeck 84
Psuedo elegans 65
Psuedo jurensis 65
Psuedo stylina 65
Pygone 65
Pyrdandi 162
Pyrite 152, 153, 156, 159, 160

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

209

161, 164, 165,, 167
Pyrolusite 158, 177
Pyroxene 88,, 93, 94, 96, 97,

164, 170, 172
Pyrrhotite 164

Q

Quadrfcostata 78
Quadrigeminum 61,' 75
Quadripunctata 69
Quarternmary 90, 95, 97, 98,
Quartz 82, 92, 94, 159, 160,

162, 164
Quartz Porphyry 63
Quartzite 59, 66, 63

R

Radeans 76, 88
Radeolite 66
Rarilanella 78
Realgar 186
Reefs 154
Reticularis 61, 75
Reticulata 75, 76
Rhetic 63

Rhinchonella 61, 65, 75
Rhizopodes 78, 89
Rhodium 147
Rhodius 82
Rhyolite 85, 94
Rift 55
Rissoa 70

Sacchariod marble J72

Salbande 158

Salt 29, 80, 86, 90, 95, III,

119, 126
Sandstone 61, 64, 75, 78, 82,

8 5, 86, 115, 154
Sarcinulata 74
Sardintes 67
Sarmatian 53, 68, 69, 79, 8a,

81, 86, 87, 90, 91
Sarniaticus 69
Schaarung 58
Schist 52, 59, 60, 73, 75, 82,

84, 126,' 152, 156, 160, t:6i,

172

Schlehani 103
Schyphia Jj
Sella 66
Semigloboza J'j
Seminoi 75
Semireticulates j^
Semistriata 79
Senomanian 67
Senonian 66, 67
Sepiolite 130, 131
Sequanian 64, 83
Serpentine 44, 58, 59, 60, Ji,

86, 88, 94, 96, 97, 127, 131,

147, 156, 157
Serpula 68

Shale 45, 63, 67, 78, 83, 153
Silica 123, 124, 133, 158
Siliceous marl 137
Siliceous Slate 166
Silicon dioxide 129
Silurian 44
Silver 149, 150, 151, ,152,

157' IS9' 160, 161, 164, 165
Silver Chloride 153
Silver Sulhpide 153
Slate 59, 60, 79, 129, 152
Soda 123, 125
Sodalite 92
Sodium Borate 127

210

MINERAL • RESOURCES

Sodium Carbonate 124, 127,

136
Sodium Chloride 124, 127
Sodium Sulphate 124,. 127
Sphaerium 71
Sphaeroid 63 •
Sphalerite 165-,;
Sphertopteris . 103
Spirifer 61, 63, 74, 75
Spirigea 63
Spondylus 69
Sponge 64
Stalactite 156, 167
Stephanian 103
Sterculia 79
Stibnite 182
Striatula 75
Striatus 63
Stromatopora 61,, 75,
Strombus 65
Strontium 123
Strophopiena. 74, 76
Stylina . 65
Subaculaeatus ; 75
Subaculus 66
Subaequalis 75
Subo'rbicularis 75
Subspeciosus 74
Sulphate 123, 125
Sulphuret of copper 166
Sulphuret of lead 153
Sulphuric acid 133
Syringo dendron 83
Syringophyllum 103
Syringopora 76

Talc 76
Talc-schist
Tapes 81

157

Tarticus ■ 'j'j

Tentaculites 74

Tenticulum 61, 63

Tepherite 92

Terebellum 78

Terebratula 65, 66, 68, "JJ, 78

Tetrahedrite 165

Trachyte sq,^ 67, 70, 91, .94,

95, 96, 97, 98, 132
Tharrmaroea 69
Thetis 66
Tin ''186

Tithonian 60, 66, 67, 85, 90
Toarcian 64
Toncasia ,103
Torticulatis '/~
Tortonian 69, 79, 80. 86
Touranian 60^ 66, 67, 85, go
Tragoceras 170
Trenolite 161

Triassic 63, ^t^, 76, 83, 84. BS
Trochoeras 74, 160
Triangular 81
Trigeri 74. 75
Trunculis 81
Tuboeformis 74
Tufa-chalk ■]■]
Tuflf 50,52,61,63,64,65,67,

70. 71, 84. 85, 87, 88, 91.

92, 93. 94, 98, loi, 132,

136, 161
Tchandae 81
Tumidus 71

Turanian 36, 84, 135, 168
Turbinatis 81
Turbo 68

U

127

UHxite
Unio 71. 98

ARMENIA AND ANATOLIA

211

Urgonian 65, 66, 84

V

Valangionian 65
Valvata 70
Varians yj
Velledae 66
Venus 68
Vermiculare 61
Verneuili 61, 74, 75
Vesiculosum 61
Virleti 69, 80
Vivipora 70
Volgaturi 81
Volhynia 89

W

Waldheimia 65
Wellen 63
Werfen 63
Wertina 71
Westphalian 102

Yordale 75

Y

Zechstein 63

Zinc 28, 149, 152, 159, 185
Zmc Blende 162, 164
Zinc Sulphate 161